Ethnoveterinary medicine against poultry diseases...
Ethnoveterinary medicine against
poultry diseases in African villages
E.F. GUÈYE
Senegalese Institute of Agricultural Research (ISRA), P.O. Box 2057,
Dakar-Hann, Senegal
The high incidence of disease is one of the major constraints to smallholder
poultry production systems in Africa. In order to control various poultry
diseases, ethnoveterinary medicine is widely practised by poor village farmers.
Natural products, especially those which are locally available, are generally
used. The use of ethnoveterinary medicine cari be considered sustainable as it
is economical, culturally acceptable and ecologically sound. Although village
poultry farmers claim that these practices are effective, there is an urgent need
for applied research to substantiate their assertions.
Keywords: Africa; ethnoveterinary medicine; disease; plant; poultry; village
Introduction
Smallholder poultry production systems which are common in African rural areas
have been previously described by various workers (Sonaiya, 1990a; Guèye and
Bessei, 1996; Guèye, 1998). Birds kept under these conditions experience high
mortality resulting from accidents, predation and disease. However, the high
incidence of disease is one of the principal constraints to these production systems
(Chabeuf, 1990; Sonaiya, 1990b; Guèye, 1997,1998).
The generally resource-poor village poultry farmers in Africa do not have
money for or access to chemical medicines or to other cost effective control
measures. They rely on ancestral indigenous knowledge to control various
poultry diseases (Bizimana, 1994; Guèye, 1997). In ethnoveterinary medicine
(EVM) natural products, especially those of plant origin, are generally used for
the treatment and/or, in some cases, the prevention of disease.
This paper reviews selected published field experiences on the use of EVM in
poultry husbandry systems in Africa. Only those ethnoveterinary practices that
are considered by village farmers to be common and effective have been
included.
l’resent address: Livestock Production Systems Group, Animal Production and Health Division, FAO,
Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.
0 World’s Poultry Science Association 1999
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 55, June 1999
Ethnoveterinary medicine for Afvican village poultry: E.F. Guèye
Occurrence of poultry diseases
Infectious diseases seriously affect village poultry production in Africa and
therefore constitute one of its major threats. Surveys among farmers in some
regions of Africa revealed that various diseases are associated with the
production of poultry (TabIc 2). Newcastle disease is the most widespread
infectious disease in the continent and its symptoms are generally clearly
described by village poultry keepers. Severe rearing losses resulting partly
from the high incidence of diseases are experienced. For example, it has been
estimated that diseases account for 56% of the annual losses suffered in Nigeria
(Dafwang, 1990) and in The Gambia (Bonfoh, 1997). Other mortality causes
reported were parasites (17%), cats (15%), snakes (4%), accidents (4%) and bees
(4%) (Bonfoh, 1997). Diseases seriously affect growing birds because they are
particularly vulnerable to infection. The mortality of indigenous fowl up to
four weeks of age under traditional management systems in sub-Saharan
Africa has been estimated at 53%. When indigenous guinea fowl are reared
under free-range conditions in Nigeria, the mortality of keets before eight
weeks of age cari be as high as 60% (Nwagu and Alawa, 1995). Furthermore,
the estimated mortality in ducklings up to four weeks of age averaged 64%
(Otchere et al., 1990). Thus, losses from disease in .African rural poultry
operations amount to about 75 million chicks, guinea keets and ducklings each
year (Sonaiya, 1990b) from a total rural poultry population estimated in 1990
to be about 729 million.
Importance and uses of EVM
In order to control the different poultry diseases and thereby prevent high
mortality rates, ethnoveterinary practices are widely used by village farmers in
Africa. EVM is the only option for most of them as there are almost no
veterinarians working in African rural areas. Additionally, in the absence of
severe droughts such as those that occurred in the 1970s and 1980s in Sahelian
countries, plant products with recognised medicinal properties are far more
accessible to villagers than drugs used by Western veterin,arians. They cari either
be collected at no cost or are cheap to obtain (Guèye, 1997). These locally available
products are very suitable for use on smallholdings by poultry farmers who cari
prepare the traditional remedies themselves. Thus, the use of EVM is obviously
sustainable and ecologically sound.
Table 1 Incidence of disease problems as mentioned by village poultqy farmers in Africa
Study area
Prevalence of disease
Source
Western Middle Belt
Newcastle disease (61%), respiratory diseases
Atteh (1990)
Region, Nigeria
(14%), fowl pox (7%), fowl choiera (4%), other
diseases (7%)
Central River Division,
Newcastle disease (88%), fowl pox (6%), fowl
Bonfoh (1997)
The Gambia
choiera (3Y01, coccidiosis (3%)
Bilene District,
Newcastle disease (43%), fleas U9%),
Alders ct nl. (1997)
Mozambique
diarrhoea (17%), cough (5%), fowl pox (4%),
other diseases (12%)
188
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 55, June 1999
Etknoveterinary tnedicine for African village poulty: E.F. Guèye
Table 2 Percentage of village fowl fanners who regularly use EVM in Africa
Study area
Regular use of EVM
Source
Middle Belt Region, Nigeria
35%
Dafwang (1990)
Tabora and Morogoro Regions, Tanzania
58%
Yongolo (1996)
Central River Division, The Gambia
59%
Bonfoh (1997)
Serowe-Palapye Subdistrict, Botswana
79%
Moreki (1997)
Bilene District, Mozambique
55%
Alders et a/. (1997)
Many village poultry farmers regularly use EVM (Table 2). In contrast to most
other African countries, traditional remedies were reported to be used by only
about 1% of poultry farmers in Zimbabwe (Kelly ef al., 1994) although as recently
as the 1970s many plants were regarded as being of medicinal value to animals
(Chavunduka, 1976). Perhaps the fact that this country has the lowest percentage
of village fowl in its national flock (25-30% compared with more than 80% for
Africa as a whole (Guèye, 1998)) explains the discrepancy.
Most village poultry farmers claim that ethnoveterinary practices, which
consist of both preventive and curative measures, are effective. For example, in
the Tabora and Morogoro regions of Tanzania about 58% of village poultry
keepers claimed success by using local medicines to control fowl typhoid and
pullorum disease (Yongolo, 1996). However, there are very few reports of
experiments carried out under controlled conditions with the aim of validating
scientifically these remedial practices. The use of 10 g Kularzhoe crenata leaves per
litre of water (as an infusion) gave good results in preventing avian coccidiosis in
domestic fowl (Agbédé ef al., 1993). Tchoumboué et al. (1996) observed
nematodicinal properties in the bark of a creeper of the Combuefum sp.
(application rate 1 g powdered bark per kg bird live weight) in village fowl
naturally infested with various parasites. The efficacy of ethnoveterinary plant
products against parasites has therefore been confirmed.
Al1 this ethnoveterinary knowledge tends to be in the custody of older people,
both men and women, who pass it on to the younger generations by word of
mouth - still the most widespread means of communication in Africa. According
to Bizimana (1994), while part of this knowledge is available to a11 poultry
keepers, another part is a jealously guarded family secret. Given these
considerations, it cari be concluded that, whereas on the one hand the use of EVM
is culturally acceptable, on the other hand much of this precious knowledge is in
danger of being lost or suppressed. This is probably the case in Zimbabwe,
although there appears to be no published estimates of the importance of EVM in
the treatment of village poultry in the 1970s in this country.
Village poultry farmers tend to use the same traditional medicinal remedies for
treating related disease conditions in both humans and poultry. This is not
surprising as most diseases that affect poultry induce symptoms that are similar
to those caused by some ailments in humans (e.g. pox, cholera), although the
farmers often do not know the causes of the diseases. Additionally, there are often
‘humanised’ relationships between humans and poultry. This arises from the fact
that, firstly, small poultry flocks are kept by village producers (Guèye, 1998) and,
secondly, in many cases humans and poultry live within the same house. For
example, it is not uncommon for village farmers in Senegal to name their birds
after people.
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 55, June 1999
189
Ethnoveterina y medicine for African village poultry: E.F. Guèye
Prevention of poultry diseases
Village poultry are almost never vaccinated with standard Western-type vaccines.
Very occasionally they are given antibiotics originally intended for human use.
Village poultry farmers in Africa tend to start dealing with disease control once the
symptoms appear in their flocks. They therefore treat symptoms instead of diseases
and link specific therapeutic preparations to specific disease symptoms. However,
in The Gambia one preventive measure (‘vaccination’) traditionally used by
farmers against Newcastle disease consists of blending the excreta from any wild
birds with goat’s milk and giving the resulting mixture to village fowl to drink
(Bonfoh, 1997). A similar use of the entrails of fowl that have died of Newcastle
disease has also been reported. The entrails of the fowl are soaked in goat’s milk
and the resulting infusion is given orally to the birds. These practices may bave
some protective effect but cannot be recommended because the entrails are very
likely to contain the virulent Newcastle disease virus. Village fowl farmers in
Botswana have reported that, before Newcastle disease attacks, they feed their fowl
on green mulberry leaves to induce diarrhoea and claim that fowl that have been
subject to this treatment do not contract the disease (Moreki, 1997).
Snakes and hawks cari also cause losses among village poultry. With a view to
preventing snake bites in village fowl in Zimbabwe, Anmna senegalensis roots are
soaked in water and the fluid is sprinkled in the hen run to repel snakes
(Chavunduka, 1976). In Nigeria, poultry owners grow certain plants (e.g.
Eupkoubia sp. and lemon grass) or place sliced garlic (Allium sativt~m) around hen
houses to repel snakes (Ibrahim, 1996). Farmers also take tare to keep the areas
clear of twining vines such as Landolpkis flouida which they believe attract snakes.
TO protect chicks and keets against hawk attacks, the spiny fruits of C~~cumis
p~~~tulatus are placed in the birds’ drinking water (Ibrahim and Abdu, 1996). The
natural selection for aggressiveness in village poultry helps to reduce losses
caused by hawks and other predators, although the limitations of this trait,
particularly in Young birds, cari be readily appreciated.
Plant products are also used to ward off various ectoparasites such as ticks, lice,
mites, fleas and small red ants that cari infest village poultry. For example, in
Botswana the leaves of Thamnosma rkodesica are reported to repel parasites when
placed in the shelter (Moreki, 1997). This plant produces a strong smell.
In village duck farms in Northern Nigeria several old farmers have reported
lameness (‘cowboy leg’), respiratory disorders and choiera as the principal
disease problems. TO protect ducks against various diseases a preparation from
the fresh leaves of Lannea acida, Momordica ckamnfin, the fruit of sweet pepper and
OIerefera subdarfa ground together and dissolved in water is given to ducklings up
to seven days of age (Hassan and Aliyu, 1996). Details on application rates were,
however, unfortunately not reported.
Treatment of poultry diseases
Using the system adopted by Bizimana (1994) poultry diseases cari be categorised
according to the organs of the birds affected (Tables 3-6). The symptoms observed
in sick birds (before death) help poultry farmers to identify the disease. This
method of presentation also provides other interested persons with the relevant
information about the plant products used to treat specific diseases.
TO treat various poultry diseases, including Newcastle disease affecting several
organs, farmers use many plant products (Table 3). Except for eye diseases, the
methods used mainly consist of soaking plant products (bark, leaves, stems,
190
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 55, June 1999
Table 3 Ethnoveterinary plant products used to treat poultry diseases affecting several organs
Diseases
Plant products
Application form
Country
Source
ND’
Bark of Parkia filicoidm
Put into drinking water
Nigeria
Nwude and Ibrahim (1980)
Leaves of Cassis didyrnobotrya
or latex of Euphorbia
matabeimsis
Added to drinking water
Zimbabwe
Chavunduka (1976)
Stern of Euphorbia candelabruwr
Kotschy uur. currdelabrum
or fruit
Used in drinking watcr
Tanzania
Mkangare
(1989)
of Capsictrm annrrum together with leaves of Ibma multiflora
ND’
Fruits of Lagenaria breaiflora and Capsicuwt frutrscens
Put into drinking water
Nigeria
Sonaiya et al. (1992)
Bark of Khaya senrgalrmis
and Capsicurn
sp. extracts
Soaked in drinking water
Senegal
Guèye (1988a)
Barks of Mangifwa indica
Put into drinking water
The Gambia
Bonfoh (1997)
m
Leaves of Muçuna sy.
Crushed leaves soaked in drinking
Kenya
Anonymous (1996)
w
water
-2
s.
Barks of Combr&rn micranthrrm
+ But~yrosprnnum
parkii +
Dried, ground and soaked in
Burkina Faso
Tamboura et QI. (1998)
s!
Ficus sp.
drinking water
Barks of Lnmnen acida
Soaked in drinking water
Burkina Faso
Tamboura et af. (1998)
G
ND”
Barks of Cassis siebrrinnn
Used as infusion
Mali
Nomoko (1997)
3
ND and other
Hot pepper, elephant faxes, sisal leaves and leaves from plants
Tanzania
Mwalusanya (1998)
Ez
diseas&
locally known as ‘chunga’, ‘hunduhtrndu’
and ‘nmvzmbalasimba’
2.
Choiera’
Fruit of Adawonia digitata
Broken and dipped in drinking water
Nigeria
Nwude and lbrahim (1980)
s
Fever’
Chopped bulb of Allirrm satizwn and Capsicm nnnmcm (red
Added and given orally
Nigeria
Nwude and Ibrahim (1980)
$
pepper)
Fruit of Cyperus articulatus
Soakrd in drinking water
Nigeria
Nwude and Ibrahim (1980)
3
Eye infections’
Leaves of shrub Pseudognaphalium
luteo-album and root powder
Exudates used as eye draps
B o t s w a n a
Moreki (1997)
2.
of Diospyros lyciodes
Eye trouble2
Leaves of Cycniunl adonrnse
Decoction given to newly-hatched
Zimbabwe
Chavunduka (1976)
s
birds to open gummed-up eyes
c?
-.
E
Sore eyes’
Bulb of Adenium multiflorum
Juice used as eye drops
Zimbabwe
Chavunduka (1976)
Poor growth, low
Fruit of Cucumis pustulatus
Mixed with bran and placed in
Nigeria
Nwude and Ibrahim (1980)
3
production’
drinking water
Fruit of C,yperus articulatus
Soaked in drinking water
Nigeria
Nwude and Ibrahim (1980)
3E:
Coughing,
Citta sy. (ginger) or pepper
Put into drinking water
Nigeria
Maigandi and Usman 11996)
F
diarrhoea and leg
r5
weakness”
m
Al1 diseases’
Leaves of Eucalyptus spp.
Put into drinking water
Ethiopia
Dessie (1996)
Hot pepper (Capsicrrrn jrut?sceris)
Soaked in drinking water
Ethiopia
Dessie (1996)
5
fi
UJ
2:
Reported in ‘a11 poultry species, *fowl, “guinea fowl and “turkeys.
ND, Newcastle disease; -, not reported.
3
Etknoveterinary
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 55, June 1999
medicine
for
African
village poultry: E.F.
----
Guèye
Table 5 Ethnoveterinary plant products used to treat poultry diseases affecting the respiratory, locomotor and nervous systems
Diseases
Plant products
Application form
Country
Source
M
Coughs, colds and
Tuber of Colocrrsin esculenta
A whole tuber (about 0.5 kg) washed
Kenya
Anonymous (1996)
2
pneumonia’
and ground in a mortar, 2 litres water
added and the mixture sieved. Three
drops are given once in the nostrils of
each fowl
‘Cough”
Fruits of pepper (Pipper
Cameroon
Agbédé
._
et al. (1995)
gUiflt?eiZSC)
3
Various respiratory
Fruits of Capsicum mzmwz and
I’ulverized and small amount of a
Zimbabwe
Chavunduka (1976)
3
infections’
Capsicum frutescens
mixture of the fruits + a little salt put
2.
into the drinking water
2
Latex of Euphorbia matabelensis or
Added to drinking water
Zimbabwe
Chavunduka (1976)
leaves of
‘c:
Nicofiana tabacum
i
Influenza’
Watery extracts of Nicofiann
Southern and
Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk %
glauca
East Africa
(1962)
F-
Lameness of ducks
Leaves of Momordica balsamina
Pulverized and mixed with food
Nigeria
Nwude and Ibrahim (1980) s
Fruits of Lagenaria breviflora
Legs are held in a bowl of water
Nigeria
Sonaiya et al. (1992)
c?
containing sliced fruits (several times a
-.
T-z
dayl
Locomotion trouble’
Leaves of Borveria uerticillata
Used as infusion
Togo
Lobi (1984)
Various nervous
Grains of Zea mays
Roasted and given hot
Zimbabwe
Chavunduka (19761
symptoms’
Reported in ‘fowl, “a11 poultry species and ‘chick embryos.
-, not reported.
m
Table 6 Ethnoveterinary plant products used to treat poultry diseases affecting the skin and the feathers
7
5’
2
Diseases
Plant products
Application form
Country
Source
w
2
Fowl pox’
Leaves of Aloe excelsa
Soaked in drinking water
Zimbabwe
C h a v u n d u k a (1976) 8
Oil of Elaris ~uinrensis
Paint affected birds
Togo
Aklobessi (1990)
Oil of Elu& guineensis
Smear scabs
Ghana
Williams (1990)
i2
2
Fowl pox’
Roots of Microglossa pyriflora
Two parts Microglossa pyrifiora roots mixed with 1 part
Kenya
.4nonymous (199h) z
with Agave sisalatza leaves and
Agave sisalana leaves and 1 part Aloe sp. leaves boiled in
s
Aloe 5~. leaves
water for 30-45 minutes and given as drinking watcr to
infected fowl
s
3
Bulbs of Allium sativm
Chopped or ground bulbs (2) are mixed in 4 litres water
Kenya
A n o n y m o u s (1996) d
and used as bird wash once daily until free of lice
z
Ei-
Various ectoparasites’ Roots of Derris diptica
lnfested birds and their houses drenched with the
West Africa
Matzigkeit (1993)
2
mixture (4S3.hg powdered roots + 113.4g soap + 4.4 1
-s
water)
h,
Latex solution of Aloe ckabaudii
Affected birds dipped in a diluted solution
Zimbabwe
Chavunduka (1976) y
Roots of Atznonn sterropkylla
Soaked in drinking water
Zimbabwe
Chavunduka (1976) 5
Oil of Bufyrospcrmunz parkii
External use
Togo
Lobi (1984)
M
Oil of Elaeis guineensis
Paint affected bilds with mixture (oil + a little Salt)
Benin
Assan !1490)
5
Butter of Bufyrosyermum purkii
Mix with same volume of liquid potash and Paint
Burkina Faso Tamboura rt nl. (1998) 0
affected birds
c
3
Various ectoparasites’
Wood ash
External use
Ethiopia
Dessie (1996)
Reported in ‘a11 poultry species and ‘fowl.
Ethnoveterinary medicine for Afiican village poultry: E.F. Guèye
fruits, bulbs or latex) in the drinking water and depriving the birds of access to
any other water. According to Nomoko (1997), one potential side effect from the
use of large doses of the infusion of the barks of Cnssiu sieberiana (Table 3) is
intoxication leading to the death of treated guinea fowl. The high tannin present
in the bark is the most likely cause of the intoxication.
Diseases cari affect the digestive system and related organs of poultry. In
general, different kinds of diarrhoea are symptoms of diseases facing village
farmers (Table 4). In most cases ethnoveterinary plant products are added to the
drinking water and given to the affected birds.
Plant products used to treat poultry diseases affecting the respiratory,
locomotor and nervous systems are listed in Table 5. There are various forms of
application. Not a11 Muscovy ducks affected by leg paralysis reported to be a
major problem in South Western Nigeria and treated using traditional remedies
fully recover (Sonaiya et al., 1992).
Fowl pox and various ectoparasites affect the skin and feathers of poultry. TO
control these ailments traditional remedies are used (TabZe 6). In fowl pox
infection, farmers in Ghana attribute scabs that appear at the corners of the
mandibles of growers or on the combs of adult poultry to chicks picking up
pawpaw seeds (Williams, 1990). The scabs resemble pawpaw seeds and this may
offer a simple explanation for the ascribed relationship. According to Williams
(1990) the scabs disappear for a while after the treatment described in Table 6.
External application tends to be practised against ectoparasites. Farmers in Togo
indicated that the plant oil used in Table 6 obstructs the respiratory system of
ectoparasites (Lobi, 1984).
Plant products involved in the treatment of diseases corne from various
botanical families (TubIes 3-6) such as Mimosaceae (Par!& SP.), Caesalpiniaceae
(Cussiu SP.), Euphorbiaceae (Euphorbiu SP.), Araceae (Colocasi~ SP.), Solanaceae
(Capsicum SP., Solunum sp. and Nicofiunu SP.), Cucurbitaceae (Lugenaria SP.,
Cucumis sp. and Momordica SP.), Ebeneceae (Diospyros SP.), Meliaceae (Khayu sp.
and Azadirachfn SP.), Anacardiaceae (Mungifera SP., Sclerocarya sp. and Lumneu SP.),
Composeae (Microglossu SP.), Agavaceae (Agave SP.), Bombacaceae (Adansonia SP.),
Liliaceae (Alhrrn sp. and Aloe SP.), Cyperaceae (Cypertrs SP.), Apocynaceae
(Adenitm sp. and Pergulariu SP.), Caricaceae (Carica SP.), Araliaceae (Cussoniu SP.),
Crassulaceae (K&nchoe SP.), Rubiaceae (Borreria SP.), Gramineae (Zea SP.),
Cycadaceae (Elueis SP.), Annonaceae (Annonu SP.), Sapotaceae (Bufyrospermum
SP.), Moraceae (Ecus SP.), Combretaceae (Combrefum SP.) and Fabaceae (Derris
SP.). This non-exhaustive list demonstrates that a great many plants need to be
protected and/or conserved to enable village (and also peri-urban) poultry
keepers to continue to make good use of their products. The concerns of poultry
specialists are therefore linked to the concerns of those seeking to preserve and
protect plant biodiversity. There is a clear need for the establishment of
multidisciplinary teams whose membership should include those with specialist
knowledge of farming practices as well as botany, pharmacy, veterinary science
and plant conservation.
Prospects for the use of EVM for the control of poultry diseases
This paper demonstrates that throughout the African continent there are many
medicinal plants that are, or might be, suitable for the treatment of poultry
diseases, although there is generally a dearth of information on application rates.
However, some plants regarded by village farmers as being of medicinal value to
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 55, June 1999
195
Ethnovetevinary medicine ROY African village poultry: E.F. Guèye
poultry are in danger of extinction, especially in arid zones. It is therefore
important that these plants be clearly identified and listed with a view to ensuring
their conservation for research and possible wider use in the future.
Ethnoveterinary knowledge is gradually being lost. Thus, field observations on
the current use of EVM should be more broadly published in order to help meet
poultry healthcare needs among the village farming community.
EVM using plant products is reported to be effective. However, little research
has been undertaken on the efficacy of these traditional remedies under
controlled conditions. There is therefore an urgent need for further research in this
field to establish which of the wide variety of products used in EVM are most
effective and the circumstances under which they may be best used. Comparisons
should be made to determine when modern veterinary medicine offers better
alternatives. Scientific validation of EVM is necessary both to justify and assist in
its increased application. There Will then be much greater recognition of the
importance of EVM by scientists, veterinarians, pharmacists and other profession-
als concerned with poultry health. The potential for enhancing our knowledge of
disease control for the benefit of the sales of poultry products throughout the
world should not be overlooked.
It is suggested that future investigations and the reporting of field experiences
should, whenever possible, include the following: the disease conditions (e.g.
Newcastle disease, choiera, coccidiosis, fowl pox); the poultry species (e.g.
domestic fowl, turkeys, guinea fowl, ducks, pigeons); the plant species and the
product (e.g. bark, leaves, roots, stems, fruits, bulbs, juice, latex); other products
associated with main used plant products (e.g. Salt, soap, other plant products);
form (e.g. decoction, infusion, pulverisation); method of application (e.g. drinking
water, feed); application rate (e.g. for a plant product to be administered through
the drinking water: g (sur+dried powdered plant product per litre of water per
kg of bird live weight and how often); and an assessment of the effectiveness of
the treatment.
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198
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 55, June 1999
poultry diseases in African villages
E.F. GUÈYE
Senegalese Institute of Agricultural Research (ISRA), P.O. Box 2057,
Dakar-Hann, Senegal
The high incidence of disease is one of the major constraints to smallholder
poultry production systems in Africa. In order to control various poultry
diseases, ethnoveterinary medicine is widely practised by poor village farmers.
Natural products, especially those which are locally available, are generally
used. The use of ethnoveterinary medicine cari be considered sustainable as it
is economical, culturally acceptable and ecologically sound. Although village
poultry farmers claim that these practices are effective, there is an urgent need
for applied research to substantiate their assertions.
Keywords: Africa; ethnoveterinary medicine; disease; plant; poultry; village
Introduction
Smallholder poultry production systems which are common in African rural areas
have been previously described by various workers (Sonaiya, 1990a; Guèye and
Bessei, 1996; Guèye, 1998). Birds kept under these conditions experience high
mortality resulting from accidents, predation and disease. However, the high
incidence of disease is one of the principal constraints to these production systems
(Chabeuf, 1990; Sonaiya, 1990b; Guèye, 1997,1998).
The generally resource-poor village poultry farmers in Africa do not have
money for or access to chemical medicines or to other cost effective control
measures. They rely on ancestral indigenous knowledge to control various
poultry diseases (Bizimana, 1994; Guèye, 1997). In ethnoveterinary medicine
(EVM) natural products, especially those of plant origin, are generally used for
the treatment and/or, in some cases, the prevention of disease.
This paper reviews selected published field experiences on the use of EVM in
poultry husbandry systems in Africa. Only those ethnoveterinary practices that
are considered by village farmers to be common and effective have been
included.
l’resent address: Livestock Production Systems Group, Animal Production and Health Division, FAO,
Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.
0 World’s Poultry Science Association 1999
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 55, June 1999
Ethnoveterinary medicine for Afvican village poultry: E.F. Guèye
Occurrence of poultry diseases
Infectious diseases seriously affect village poultry production in Africa and
therefore constitute one of its major threats. Surveys among farmers in some
regions of Africa revealed that various diseases are associated with the
production of poultry (TabIc 2). Newcastle disease is the most widespread
infectious disease in the continent and its symptoms are generally clearly
described by village poultry keepers. Severe rearing losses resulting partly
from the high incidence of diseases are experienced. For example, it has been
estimated that diseases account for 56% of the annual losses suffered in Nigeria
(Dafwang, 1990) and in The Gambia (Bonfoh, 1997). Other mortality causes
reported were parasites (17%), cats (15%), snakes (4%), accidents (4%) and bees
(4%) (Bonfoh, 1997). Diseases seriously affect growing birds because they are
particularly vulnerable to infection. The mortality of indigenous fowl up to
four weeks of age under traditional management systems in sub-Saharan
Africa has been estimated at 53%. When indigenous guinea fowl are reared
under free-range conditions in Nigeria, the mortality of keets before eight
weeks of age cari be as high as 60% (Nwagu and Alawa, 1995). Furthermore,
the estimated mortality in ducklings up to four weeks of age averaged 64%
(Otchere et al., 1990). Thus, losses from disease in .African rural poultry
operations amount to about 75 million chicks, guinea keets and ducklings each
year (Sonaiya, 1990b) from a total rural poultry population estimated in 1990
to be about 729 million.
Importance and uses of EVM
In order to control the different poultry diseases and thereby prevent high
mortality rates, ethnoveterinary practices are widely used by village farmers in
Africa. EVM is the only option for most of them as there are almost no
veterinarians working in African rural areas. Additionally, in the absence of
severe droughts such as those that occurred in the 1970s and 1980s in Sahelian
countries, plant products with recognised medicinal properties are far more
accessible to villagers than drugs used by Western veterin,arians. They cari either
be collected at no cost or are cheap to obtain (Guèye, 1997). These locally available
products are very suitable for use on smallholdings by poultry farmers who cari
prepare the traditional remedies themselves. Thus, the use of EVM is obviously
sustainable and ecologically sound.
Table 1 Incidence of disease problems as mentioned by village poultqy farmers in Africa
Study area
Prevalence of disease
Source
Western Middle Belt
Newcastle disease (61%), respiratory diseases
Atteh (1990)
Region, Nigeria
(14%), fowl pox (7%), fowl choiera (4%), other
diseases (7%)
Central River Division,
Newcastle disease (88%), fowl pox (6%), fowl
Bonfoh (1997)
The Gambia
choiera (3Y01, coccidiosis (3%)
Bilene District,
Newcastle disease (43%), fleas U9%),
Alders ct nl. (1997)
Mozambique
diarrhoea (17%), cough (5%), fowl pox (4%),
other diseases (12%)
188
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 55, June 1999
Etknoveterinary tnedicine for African village poulty: E.F. Guèye
Table 2 Percentage of village fowl fanners who regularly use EVM in Africa
Study area
Regular use of EVM
Source
Middle Belt Region, Nigeria
35%
Dafwang (1990)
Tabora and Morogoro Regions, Tanzania
58%
Yongolo (1996)
Central River Division, The Gambia
59%
Bonfoh (1997)
Serowe-Palapye Subdistrict, Botswana
79%
Moreki (1997)
Bilene District, Mozambique
55%
Alders et a/. (1997)
Many village poultry farmers regularly use EVM (Table 2). In contrast to most
other African countries, traditional remedies were reported to be used by only
about 1% of poultry farmers in Zimbabwe (Kelly ef al., 1994) although as recently
as the 1970s many plants were regarded as being of medicinal value to animals
(Chavunduka, 1976). Perhaps the fact that this country has the lowest percentage
of village fowl in its national flock (25-30% compared with more than 80% for
Africa as a whole (Guèye, 1998)) explains the discrepancy.
Most village poultry farmers claim that ethnoveterinary practices, which
consist of both preventive and curative measures, are effective. For example, in
the Tabora and Morogoro regions of Tanzania about 58% of village poultry
keepers claimed success by using local medicines to control fowl typhoid and
pullorum disease (Yongolo, 1996). However, there are very few reports of
experiments carried out under controlled conditions with the aim of validating
scientifically these remedial practices. The use of 10 g Kularzhoe crenata leaves per
litre of water (as an infusion) gave good results in preventing avian coccidiosis in
domestic fowl (Agbédé ef al., 1993). Tchoumboué et al. (1996) observed
nematodicinal properties in the bark of a creeper of the Combuefum sp.
(application rate 1 g powdered bark per kg bird live weight) in village fowl
naturally infested with various parasites. The efficacy of ethnoveterinary plant
products against parasites has therefore been confirmed.
Al1 this ethnoveterinary knowledge tends to be in the custody of older people,
both men and women, who pass it on to the younger generations by word of
mouth - still the most widespread means of communication in Africa. According
to Bizimana (1994), while part of this knowledge is available to a11 poultry
keepers, another part is a jealously guarded family secret. Given these
considerations, it cari be concluded that, whereas on the one hand the use of EVM
is culturally acceptable, on the other hand much of this precious knowledge is in
danger of being lost or suppressed. This is probably the case in Zimbabwe,
although there appears to be no published estimates of the importance of EVM in
the treatment of village poultry in the 1970s in this country.
Village poultry farmers tend to use the same traditional medicinal remedies for
treating related disease conditions in both humans and poultry. This is not
surprising as most diseases that affect poultry induce symptoms that are similar
to those caused by some ailments in humans (e.g. pox, cholera), although the
farmers often do not know the causes of the diseases. Additionally, there are often
‘humanised’ relationships between humans and poultry. This arises from the fact
that, firstly, small poultry flocks are kept by village producers (Guèye, 1998) and,
secondly, in many cases humans and poultry live within the same house. For
example, it is not uncommon for village farmers in Senegal to name their birds
after people.
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 55, June 1999
189
Ethnoveterina y medicine for African village poultry: E.F. Guèye
Prevention of poultry diseases
Village poultry are almost never vaccinated with standard Western-type vaccines.
Very occasionally they are given antibiotics originally intended for human use.
Village poultry farmers in Africa tend to start dealing with disease control once the
symptoms appear in their flocks. They therefore treat symptoms instead of diseases
and link specific therapeutic preparations to specific disease symptoms. However,
in The Gambia one preventive measure (‘vaccination’) traditionally used by
farmers against Newcastle disease consists of blending the excreta from any wild
birds with goat’s milk and giving the resulting mixture to village fowl to drink
(Bonfoh, 1997). A similar use of the entrails of fowl that have died of Newcastle
disease has also been reported. The entrails of the fowl are soaked in goat’s milk
and the resulting infusion is given orally to the birds. These practices may bave
some protective effect but cannot be recommended because the entrails are very
likely to contain the virulent Newcastle disease virus. Village fowl farmers in
Botswana have reported that, before Newcastle disease attacks, they feed their fowl
on green mulberry leaves to induce diarrhoea and claim that fowl that have been
subject to this treatment do not contract the disease (Moreki, 1997).
Snakes and hawks cari also cause losses among village poultry. With a view to
preventing snake bites in village fowl in Zimbabwe, Anmna senegalensis roots are
soaked in water and the fluid is sprinkled in the hen run to repel snakes
(Chavunduka, 1976). In Nigeria, poultry owners grow certain plants (e.g.
Eupkoubia sp. and lemon grass) or place sliced garlic (Allium sativt~m) around hen
houses to repel snakes (Ibrahim, 1996). Farmers also take tare to keep the areas
clear of twining vines such as Landolpkis flouida which they believe attract snakes.
TO protect chicks and keets against hawk attacks, the spiny fruits of C~~cumis
p~~~tulatus are placed in the birds’ drinking water (Ibrahim and Abdu, 1996). The
natural selection for aggressiveness in village poultry helps to reduce losses
caused by hawks and other predators, although the limitations of this trait,
particularly in Young birds, cari be readily appreciated.
Plant products are also used to ward off various ectoparasites such as ticks, lice,
mites, fleas and small red ants that cari infest village poultry. For example, in
Botswana the leaves of Thamnosma rkodesica are reported to repel parasites when
placed in the shelter (Moreki, 1997). This plant produces a strong smell.
In village duck farms in Northern Nigeria several old farmers have reported
lameness (‘cowboy leg’), respiratory disorders and choiera as the principal
disease problems. TO protect ducks against various diseases a preparation from
the fresh leaves of Lannea acida, Momordica ckamnfin, the fruit of sweet pepper and
OIerefera subdarfa ground together and dissolved in water is given to ducklings up
to seven days of age (Hassan and Aliyu, 1996). Details on application rates were,
however, unfortunately not reported.
Treatment of poultry diseases
Using the system adopted by Bizimana (1994) poultry diseases cari be categorised
according to the organs of the birds affected (Tables 3-6). The symptoms observed
in sick birds (before death) help poultry farmers to identify the disease. This
method of presentation also provides other interested persons with the relevant
information about the plant products used to treat specific diseases.
TO treat various poultry diseases, including Newcastle disease affecting several
organs, farmers use many plant products (Table 3). Except for eye diseases, the
methods used mainly consist of soaking plant products (bark, leaves, stems,
190
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 55, June 1999
Table 3 Ethnoveterinary plant products used to treat poultry diseases affecting several organs
Diseases
Plant products
Application form
Country
Source
ND’
Bark of Parkia filicoidm
Put into drinking water
Nigeria
Nwude and Ibrahim (1980)
Leaves of Cassis didyrnobotrya
or latex of Euphorbia
matabeimsis
Added to drinking water
Zimbabwe
Chavunduka (1976)
Stern of Euphorbia candelabruwr
Kotschy uur. currdelabrum
or fruit
Used in drinking watcr
Tanzania
Mkangare
(1989)
of Capsictrm annrrum together with leaves of Ibma multiflora
ND’
Fruits of Lagenaria breaiflora and Capsicuwt frutrscens
Put into drinking water
Nigeria
Sonaiya et al. (1992)
Bark of Khaya senrgalrmis
and Capsicurn
sp. extracts
Soaked in drinking water
Senegal
Guèye (1988a)
Barks of Mangifwa indica
Put into drinking water
The Gambia
Bonfoh (1997)
m
Leaves of Muçuna sy.
Crushed leaves soaked in drinking
Kenya
Anonymous (1996)
w
water
-2
s.
Barks of Combr&rn micranthrrm
+ But~yrosprnnum
parkii +
Dried, ground and soaked in
Burkina Faso
Tamboura et QI. (1998)
s!
Ficus sp.
drinking water
Barks of Lnmnen acida
Soaked in drinking water
Burkina Faso
Tamboura et af. (1998)
G
ND”
Barks of Cassis siebrrinnn
Used as infusion
Mali
Nomoko (1997)
3
ND and other
Hot pepper, elephant faxes, sisal leaves and leaves from plants
Tanzania
Mwalusanya (1998)
Ez
diseas&
locally known as ‘chunga’, ‘hunduhtrndu’
and ‘nmvzmbalasimba’
2.
Choiera’
Fruit of Adawonia digitata
Broken and dipped in drinking water
Nigeria
Nwude and lbrahim (1980)
s
Fever’
Chopped bulb of Allirrm satizwn and Capsicm nnnmcm (red
Added and given orally
Nigeria
Nwude and Ibrahim (1980)
$
pepper)
Fruit of Cyperus articulatus
Soakrd in drinking water
Nigeria
Nwude and Ibrahim (1980)
3
Eye infections’
Leaves of shrub Pseudognaphalium
luteo-album and root powder
Exudates used as eye draps
B o t s w a n a
Moreki (1997)
2.
of Diospyros lyciodes
Eye trouble2
Leaves of Cycniunl adonrnse
Decoction given to newly-hatched
Zimbabwe
Chavunduka (1976)
s
birds to open gummed-up eyes
c?
-.
E
Sore eyes’
Bulb of Adenium multiflorum
Juice used as eye drops
Zimbabwe
Chavunduka (1976)
Poor growth, low
Fruit of Cucumis pustulatus
Mixed with bran and placed in
Nigeria
Nwude and Ibrahim (1980)
3
production’
drinking water
Fruit of C,yperus articulatus
Soaked in drinking water
Nigeria
Nwude and Ibrahim (1980)
3E:
Coughing,
Citta sy. (ginger) or pepper
Put into drinking water
Nigeria
Maigandi and Usman 11996)
F
diarrhoea and leg
r5
weakness”
m
Al1 diseases’
Leaves of Eucalyptus spp.
Put into drinking water
Ethiopia
Dessie (1996)
Hot pepper (Capsicrrrn jrut?sceris)
Soaked in drinking water
Ethiopia
Dessie (1996)
5
fi
UJ
2:
Reported in ‘a11 poultry species, *fowl, “guinea fowl and “turkeys.
ND, Newcastle disease; -, not reported.
3
Etknoveterinary
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 55, June 1999
medicine
for
African
village poultry: E.F.
----
Guèye
Table 5 Ethnoveterinary plant products used to treat poultry diseases affecting the respiratory, locomotor and nervous systems
Diseases
Plant products
Application form
Country
Source
M
Coughs, colds and
Tuber of Colocrrsin esculenta
A whole tuber (about 0.5 kg) washed
Kenya
Anonymous (1996)
2
pneumonia’
and ground in a mortar, 2 litres water
added and the mixture sieved. Three
drops are given once in the nostrils of
each fowl
‘Cough”
Fruits of pepper (Pipper
Cameroon
Agbédé
._
et al. (1995)
gUiflt?eiZSC)
3
Various respiratory
Fruits of Capsicum mzmwz and
I’ulverized and small amount of a
Zimbabwe
Chavunduka (1976)
3
infections’
Capsicum frutescens
mixture of the fruits + a little salt put
2.
into the drinking water
2
Latex of Euphorbia matabelensis or
Added to drinking water
Zimbabwe
Chavunduka (1976)
leaves of
‘c:
Nicofiana tabacum
i
Influenza’
Watery extracts of Nicofiann
Southern and
Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk %
glauca
East Africa
(1962)
F-
Lameness of ducks
Leaves of Momordica balsamina
Pulverized and mixed with food
Nigeria
Nwude and Ibrahim (1980) s
Fruits of Lagenaria breviflora
Legs are held in a bowl of water
Nigeria
Sonaiya et al. (1992)
c?
containing sliced fruits (several times a
-.
T-z
dayl
Locomotion trouble’
Leaves of Borveria uerticillata
Used as infusion
Togo
Lobi (1984)
Various nervous
Grains of Zea mays
Roasted and given hot
Zimbabwe
Chavunduka (19761
symptoms’
Reported in ‘fowl, “a11 poultry species and ‘chick embryos.
-, not reported.
m
Table 6 Ethnoveterinary plant products used to treat poultry diseases affecting the skin and the feathers
7
5’
2
Diseases
Plant products
Application form
Country
Source
w
2
Fowl pox’
Leaves of Aloe excelsa
Soaked in drinking water
Zimbabwe
C h a v u n d u k a (1976) 8
Oil of Elaris ~uinrensis
Paint affected birds
Togo
Aklobessi (1990)
Oil of Elu& guineensis
Smear scabs
Ghana
Williams (1990)
i2
2
Fowl pox’
Roots of Microglossa pyriflora
Two parts Microglossa pyrifiora roots mixed with 1 part
Kenya
.4nonymous (199h) z
with Agave sisalatza leaves and
Agave sisalana leaves and 1 part Aloe sp. leaves boiled in
s
Aloe 5~. leaves
water for 30-45 minutes and given as drinking watcr to
infected fowl
s
3
Bulbs of Allium sativm
Chopped or ground bulbs (2) are mixed in 4 litres water
Kenya
A n o n y m o u s (1996) d
and used as bird wash once daily until free of lice
z
Ei-
Various ectoparasites’ Roots of Derris diptica
lnfested birds and their houses drenched with the
West Africa
Matzigkeit (1993)
2
mixture (4S3.hg powdered roots + 113.4g soap + 4.4 1
-s
water)
h,
Latex solution of Aloe ckabaudii
Affected birds dipped in a diluted solution
Zimbabwe
Chavunduka (1976) y
Roots of Atznonn sterropkylla
Soaked in drinking water
Zimbabwe
Chavunduka (1976) 5
Oil of Bufyrospcrmunz parkii
External use
Togo
Lobi (1984)
M
Oil of Elaeis guineensis
Paint affected bilds with mixture (oil + a little Salt)
Benin
Assan !1490)
5
Butter of Bufyrosyermum purkii
Mix with same volume of liquid potash and Paint
Burkina Faso Tamboura rt nl. (1998) 0
affected birds
c
3
Various ectoparasites’
Wood ash
External use
Ethiopia
Dessie (1996)
Reported in ‘a11 poultry species and ‘fowl.
Ethnoveterinary medicine for Afiican village poultry: E.F. Guèye
fruits, bulbs or latex) in the drinking water and depriving the birds of access to
any other water. According to Nomoko (1997), one potential side effect from the
use of large doses of the infusion of the barks of Cnssiu sieberiana (Table 3) is
intoxication leading to the death of treated guinea fowl. The high tannin present
in the bark is the most likely cause of the intoxication.
Diseases cari affect the digestive system and related organs of poultry. In
general, different kinds of diarrhoea are symptoms of diseases facing village
farmers (Table 4). In most cases ethnoveterinary plant products are added to the
drinking water and given to the affected birds.
Plant products used to treat poultry diseases affecting the respiratory,
locomotor and nervous systems are listed in Table 5. There are various forms of
application. Not a11 Muscovy ducks affected by leg paralysis reported to be a
major problem in South Western Nigeria and treated using traditional remedies
fully recover (Sonaiya et al., 1992).
Fowl pox and various ectoparasites affect the skin and feathers of poultry. TO
control these ailments traditional remedies are used (TabZe 6). In fowl pox
infection, farmers in Ghana attribute scabs that appear at the corners of the
mandibles of growers or on the combs of adult poultry to chicks picking up
pawpaw seeds (Williams, 1990). The scabs resemble pawpaw seeds and this may
offer a simple explanation for the ascribed relationship. According to Williams
(1990) the scabs disappear for a while after the treatment described in Table 6.
External application tends to be practised against ectoparasites. Farmers in Togo
indicated that the plant oil used in Table 6 obstructs the respiratory system of
ectoparasites (Lobi, 1984).
Plant products involved in the treatment of diseases corne from various
botanical families (TubIes 3-6) such as Mimosaceae (Par!& SP.), Caesalpiniaceae
(Cussiu SP.), Euphorbiaceae (Euphorbiu SP.), Araceae (Colocasi~ SP.), Solanaceae
(Capsicum SP., Solunum sp. and Nicofiunu SP.), Cucurbitaceae (Lugenaria SP.,
Cucumis sp. and Momordica SP.), Ebeneceae (Diospyros SP.), Meliaceae (Khayu sp.
and Azadirachfn SP.), Anacardiaceae (Mungifera SP., Sclerocarya sp. and Lumneu SP.),
Composeae (Microglossu SP.), Agavaceae (Agave SP.), Bombacaceae (Adansonia SP.),
Liliaceae (Alhrrn sp. and Aloe SP.), Cyperaceae (Cypertrs SP.), Apocynaceae
(Adenitm sp. and Pergulariu SP.), Caricaceae (Carica SP.), Araliaceae (Cussoniu SP.),
Crassulaceae (K&nchoe SP.), Rubiaceae (Borreria SP.), Gramineae (Zea SP.),
Cycadaceae (Elueis SP.), Annonaceae (Annonu SP.), Sapotaceae (Bufyrospermum
SP.), Moraceae (Ecus SP.), Combretaceae (Combrefum SP.) and Fabaceae (Derris
SP.). This non-exhaustive list demonstrates that a great many plants need to be
protected and/or conserved to enable village (and also peri-urban) poultry
keepers to continue to make good use of their products. The concerns of poultry
specialists are therefore linked to the concerns of those seeking to preserve and
protect plant biodiversity. There is a clear need for the establishment of
multidisciplinary teams whose membership should include those with specialist
knowledge of farming practices as well as botany, pharmacy, veterinary science
and plant conservation.
Prospects for the use of EVM for the control of poultry diseases
This paper demonstrates that throughout the African continent there are many
medicinal plants that are, or might be, suitable for the treatment of poultry
diseases, although there is generally a dearth of information on application rates.
However, some plants regarded by village farmers as being of medicinal value to
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 55, June 1999
195
Ethnovetevinary medicine ROY African village poultry: E.F. Guèye
poultry are in danger of extinction, especially in arid zones. It is therefore
important that these plants be clearly identified and listed with a view to ensuring
their conservation for research and possible wider use in the future.
Ethnoveterinary knowledge is gradually being lost. Thus, field observations on
the current use of EVM should be more broadly published in order to help meet
poultry healthcare needs among the village farming community.
EVM using plant products is reported to be effective. However, little research
has been undertaken on the efficacy of these traditional remedies under
controlled conditions. There is therefore an urgent need for further research in this
field to establish which of the wide variety of products used in EVM are most
effective and the circumstances under which they may be best used. Comparisons
should be made to determine when modern veterinary medicine offers better
alternatives. Scientific validation of EVM is necessary both to justify and assist in
its increased application. There Will then be much greater recognition of the
importance of EVM by scientists, veterinarians, pharmacists and other profession-
als concerned with poultry health. The potential for enhancing our knowledge of
disease control for the benefit of the sales of poultry products throughout the
world should not be overlooked.
It is suggested that future investigations and the reporting of field experiences
should, whenever possible, include the following: the disease conditions (e.g.
Newcastle disease, choiera, coccidiosis, fowl pox); the poultry species (e.g.
domestic fowl, turkeys, guinea fowl, ducks, pigeons); the plant species and the
product (e.g. bark, leaves, roots, stems, fruits, bulbs, juice, latex); other products
associated with main used plant products (e.g. Salt, soap, other plant products);
form (e.g. decoction, infusion, pulverisation); method of application (e.g. drinking
water, feed); application rate (e.g. for a plant product to be administered through
the drinking water: g (sur+dried powdered plant product per litre of water per
kg of bird live weight and how often); and an assessment of the effectiveness of
the treatment.
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