Regional report Village egg and fowl meat ...
Regional report
Village egg and fowl meat
production in Africa
EL HADJI FALLOU GUÈYE
Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, B.P. 2057, Dakar-Hann,
Sénégal
Throughout the continent of Africa the keeping of indigenous fowl by village
communities has been practised for many generations. These birds, which are
generally kept on a free range system, currently make up more than 80% of the
continent’s poultry flock. Although requiring minimal resource input and
considered secondary to other agricultural activities by farmers, this type of
production has an important role in supplying local populations with
additional income and high quality protein. However, high mortality, espe-
cially in growers, constitutes the greatest constraint on development. Indige-
nous fowl are not a particular variety but are the result of erratic crosses
between local and imported stocks. Growth and egg production of the
indigenous birds are low and their limits of performance are rapidly reached
when feeding and management are improved. However, the meat and eggs are
much preferred by the consumers and fetch premium prices compared with
commercial birds. The genetic potential of the indigenous stocks could be
improved through crossing with selected but still robust varieties.
Keywords: Africa, eggs, meat, mortality, Newcastle disease, production, village
fowl
Introduction
African livestock population statistics for 1995 indicate poultry to be the most
numerous species of farm animal (Anonymous, 1996a). More than 80% of
poultry are kept in rural areas and contribute substantially to annual egg and
meat production (Sonaiya, 1997). Throughout Africa poultry production stems
from ancient traditional practices. Domestic fowl are the most important type
of poultry kept on the continent. In general, village producers keep small
flocks of between 5 and 20 birds per household (Guèye, 1997a). Women and
children play a key role in their management (Kitalyi, 1996; Guèye, 1997a).
The fowl are generally raised on a free range system and they survive as
scavengers. Rudimentary coops or shelters may be provided to give some
protection against bad weather and night predators such as reptiles. Thus,
0 World’s Poultry Science Association 1998
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 54, March 1998
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Village egg and fowl meut producfion in Africa: p4.F. Guèye
village fowl in Africa are maintained with very low land, labour and capital
inputs and cari therefore be kept by even the poorest social strata of the rural
population.
Because of low productivity, indigenous fowl production in Africa has been
neglected and is frequently considered by farmers as an insignificant occupation
compared with other agricultural activities. Nevertheless, outside urban centres,
and especially in non-coastal areas, village fowl provide the population with a
vital source of protein and income. In addition, they play an important role within
the context of many social and/or religious ceremonies. This paper reviews the
most relevant information available in Africa relating to the traditional extensive
husbandry system of fowl production.
Socioeconomic and nutritional importance
The human population in Africa is estimated to be 728 million (Anonymous,
1996b), while the total fowl popuïation of the continent was estimated as 1068
million in 1995 (Anonymous, 1996a), producing 1695 620 metric tons of eggs and
2096000 metric tons of meat (Anonymous, 199613). Domestic fowl are kept by
almost every village household. Because most reports underestimate the true
numbers, village fowl probably make up more than 80% of the total fowl
population (Table 2). This is in line with the findings of Sonaiya (1995) who
reported the same proportion. Moreover, in some African countries (Table 11 the
ratio of village fowl to village human population is about 1.5. Thus, there are
approximately three fowl for every two people.
Table 1 Estimated populations of village fowl in some African countries, their contribution to
the national flocks and the ratio of village fowl population to village human population
Village
fowl as a
Ratio of
percentage
village fowl
Village fowl
of the
population to
population
national
village human
Country
(millions)
flock
population
Reference
Cameroon
11.2
7 0
1.57t
Ngou Ngoupayou (1995)
Central African Republic
2.2
80
1.06t
Anonymous (1997)
Ivory Coast
15.4
7 3
2.44t
Diambra (1990)
Ethiopia
55.9
99
1.22t
Yami (1995)
Gambia
0.9s
9 0
1.32
Andrews (1990)
Kenya
16.1
70
0.84
Musiime (1992a)
Lesotho
1.6
1.12t
Khomari (1992)
Malawi
12.0
90
1.46t
Upindi (1990)
Mali
18.0
90
2.50t
Kounta (1992)
Nigeria
123.9
93
2.59t
Ologhobo (1992)
Senegal
11.1
70
2.22t
Guèye (1997b)
Sudan
21.0
70
1.09
El Zubeir (1990)
Tanzania
21.0
75
1.14
Kabatange and Katule (1989)
Togo
3.9
70
1.55
Lobi (1984)
Uganda
16.0
8 0
1.01t
Mukiibi-Muka (1992)
Zimbabwe
8.9-10.7
25-30
1.41t
Kulube (1990)
*Calculated from data of Ihe year 1995 (Anonymous, 1996a).
tAuthor’s estimate.
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Village egg ad fowl meat production in Africa: ,&.E Guèye
In general, in rural areas throughout the African continent a11 ethnie groups are
involved in poultry production. In addition to providing farmers with eggs and
meat for their home consumption, poultry are kept for a variety of other reasons.
The sale (or barter) of poultry products enables poultry keepers to obtain money
to spend on their own and family needs. In the context of intra- and inter-
community exchanges, indigenous fowl have a symbolic importance within many
social activities (e.g. special banquets for distinguished guests, gifts) and/or
religious ceremonies (e.g. cocks as offerings to the deities) (Veluw, 1987; Lul, 1990;
Okot, 1990; Sonaiya, 1990a, 1990b; Williams, 1990; Kounta, 1991; Buldgen et nl.,
1992; Zoungrana and Slenders, 1992; Spradbrow, 1993/94; Bell and Abdou, 1995;
Guèye and Bessei, 1995; Yami, 1995). In the Western Middle-Belt region of Nigeria,
Atteh (1989) reported the reasons for keeping village fowls as being 11% for
income alone, 28% for consumption alone, 45% for income and consumption, 3%
for ceremonies, 11% for income and ceremonies, 3% for consumption and
ceremonies and 1% for ornament. In the Keita region of Niger home consumption
accounted for 47%, sales for 38% and gifts for 16% (Bell and Abdou, 1995). When
the traditional society of the Mamprusi tribe in Northern Ghana is considered,
Veluw (1987) reported that the uses of poultry were 35% for sacrifice, 28% for sale,
15% for consumption, 13% for gifts and 10% for breeding stock, while 71%’ of the
eggs were set aside for hatching, 18% for sale, 5% for consumption and 5% for
gifts. Additionally, indigenous fowl play an important role in traditional medicine
(LU~, 1990; Ngou Ngoupayou, 1990,1995).
Flock sizes for a number of African countries are shown in Table 2. It cari be seen
that relatively larger flock sizes are reported from Madagascar and Mali. In the
latter country the survey was carried out in areas where farmers benefit from the
effects of a development project (‘Projet Sectoriel de l’Elevage’). Furthermore,
flock sizes cari vary depending on factors such as the season in which the survey
is carried out and the occurrence of diseases. Guèye (1997a) reported that flock
sizes generally range from 5 to 20 fowl per African village household.
Table 2 Estimated numbers of domestic fowl per village
household in various countries
Country
Number
Source
Benin
7-12
Assan (1990)
Cameroon
10.3
Ngou Ngoupayou (1990)
Congo
1 9
Nkodia (1990)
Ethiopia
6
Yami (1995)
Kenya
7-14
Mbugua (1990)
Madagascar
20-50
Raveloson (1990)
Mali
20-30
Kounta (1991)
Morocco
2-40
El Houadfi (1990)
Niger
1 2
Bell and Abdou (1995)
Nigeria
14.1
Sonaiya (1990a)
Senegal
1 0
Sali (1990)
Somalia
5-15
Lu1 (1990)
Sudan
5-10
El Zubeir (1990)
Tanzania
1 2
Kabatange and Katule (1989)
Togo
21
Aklobessi (1990)
Uganda
2-20
Okot (1990)
Zimbabwe
20-25
Kulube (1990)
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 54, March 1998
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Village egg and fowl meat production in Afvica: F.F. Guèye
The male to female ratios in village fowl flocks in Africa were found to be 3.5:1
in Central Mali (Kuit et al., 1986),4.9:1 in the Thiès and Fatick regions of Senegal
(Sali, 1990), 2.3:1 in the Ivory Coast (Diambra, 19901, 3.1:l in Niger (Bell and
Abdou, 1995), 1.9:1 in South Western Nigeria (Sonaiya and Olori, 1989) and 1.4:1
in the Central River Division of Gambia (Bonfoh, 1997). The numbers of males
tend to be lower in flocks with high proportions of growers, and to be higher in
larger flocks. Males are generally removed from the flocks at an early age for sale,
home consumption or cultural purposes.
The information available in the literature about the ownership patterns of
village fowl indicates that women, assisted in some cases by children, are the
main keepers. According to Atteh (1989), village fowl kept in Nigeria are largely
owned by women (86%) compared with 14% by men. Comparable figures were
also reported for Nigeria (78%, versus 22%) by Sonaiya and Olori (1989). The
ownership pattern of village fowl in the Gambia was found to be 47% by women,
38% by the whole family, 12% by men and 3% by women and children (Bonfoh,
1997). Savané (1996) reported that, in the Kolda region of Senegal, about 54% and
46% of the poultry owners were women and men, respectively. By contrast,
according to Bell and Abdou (1995), about 83% and 17%) of fowl in Niger are
owned by men and women, respectively. These data patterns generally
underestimate the proportion owned by women (and thus overestimate that by
men) because, in most cases, only men could be interviewed. This is a
consequence
of the dominating position held by men in most African societies.
General statements on ownership cari also be misleading because there are
different modes of acquisition of domestic fowl (e.g. purchase or barter, gifts or
inheritance).
In spite of the small numbers of fowl kept by village farmers, the contribution
of this sector to national egg and meat production is substantial. Village poultry
were estimated to account for 12.4% of the estimated 192 640 metric tons of eggs
produced in Nigeria in 1987 (Sonaiya, 1997). In Côte d’ivoire the village poultry
population provided about 69’% of the 21500 metric tons of poultry meat and 26%’
of the 12200 metric tons of eggs produced in 1984 (Diambra, 1990). In Morocco
about 26% of the 117000 metric tons of poultry meat and 36% of the 1100 million
eggs produced in 1989 came from indigenous fowl (El Houadfi, 1990). In reality
these proportions are probably higher at present becaus’e commercial producers
have to tope with various supply bottlenecks due to their high dependence on
imports (which need hard currencies) and because of periodic shortages of feed
and other inputs (Ngou Ngoupayou, 1990; Guèye, 19971:).
Compared with eggs and fowl meat from commercial flocks derived from
imported stocks, those from indigenous stocks are strongly preferred by African
consumers (Adebanjo and Oluyemi, 1981; Horst, 1989; Oluyemi, 1989; Mbugua,
1990; Ngou Ngoupayou, 1990; Raveloson, 1990; Guèye and Bessei, 1996, 1997).
They therefore fetch premium prices. For example, the average indigenous fowl
meat prices in 1995 in Dakar, Senegal varied from US$;!.54 to US$3.93 per kg at
markets and supermarkets, respectively. These amounted to premiums of about
13% at markets and 27% at supermarkets in comparison with the prices of meat
from commercial fowl. Thus, well-off people in supermarkets appear willing to
pay more in order to get indigenous fowl meat. However, in Nigeria the prices
from itinerant retailers for local and exotic growers were the same, while market
prices for male birds were two to three times higher than for females, i.e. US$4.08-
5.10 for mature males and US$1.6:3-2.04 for mature females (Sonaiya rt L?/., 1992).
There is a dearth of information on comparative egg prices.
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World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 54, March 19%
Village egg and fowl meat production in Africa: fi.F. Guèye
Table 3 Productive traits of local breeds and of improved crossbreeds in Egypt
Productive traits
Mature
Mature
Number
%
male
female
of eggs
weight
weight
weight
Breeds
Origin
w
w
w
Fayomi
Local breed
160
4 2
1950
1650
Dandarawi
Local breed
153
48
1950
1780
Dokki 4
Fayomi X Plymouth
167
50
2460
1780
Matrouh
Dokki X Leghorn
192
5 7
2380
1700
Golden montazah
Dokki X Rhode Island Red
199
55
2700
2000
Silver montazah
Dokki X Rhode Island Red
205
5 4
2500
1890
Mamoura
Dokki X Iskandrani
185
5 5
3120
2430
Mandarah
Dokki X Iskandrani
180
5 7
2800
2150
Gemeza
Dokki X Plymouth White
180
5 7
2800
2150
Elsalam
Manoura X Nichols
175
58
3520
2630
Bandarah
Gemeza X Cornish White
180
65
3500
2800
Source: Zaza (1992)
‘Breeds’
The domestic fowl (Callus ~&US), reared in African rural areas, has been described
by many authors (Anonymous, 1987; Oluyemi, 1989; Aklobessi, 1990; LUI, 1990;
Raveloson, 1990; Sonaiya, 1990b; Buldgen et a1.,1992; Guèye and Bessei, 1996).
Various workers use common terms such as ‘African chicken’, ‘bush chicken’ or
‘runner chicken’ to describe the indigenous fowl (Berte, 1987; Kounta, 1991;
Guèye and Bessei, 1997). However, distinct local varieties are reported from some
African countries. In Sudan there are ‘Baladi’ which are characterized by large
body weight at 12 months (i.e. 1.37 kg for the female and 1.88 kg for the male),
have a wide range of feather colours and a small ‘crushed’ comb, ‘Bare Neck
chicken’ with featherless neck and small body weight of 1.1 kg at maturity and the
layer strain ‘Betwil’ which produces 70-80 40g eggs per year under the
traditional husbandry system (Musharaf, 1989). The Moroccan ‘Beldi’ shows great
ability to convert unconventional feedstuffs into meat (El Houadfi, 1990). Ngou
Ngoupayou (1990) reported on the indigenous fowl in Cameroon which include
‘Dzaye’ with white feathers, ‘Dongwe’ with black feathers, the meat-type
‘Tsabatha’ with mixed coloured feathers (grey, black and white) and a layer strain
called ‘Zarwa’. In Egypt Zaza (1992) reported on the productive traits of two local
breeds - the ‘Fayomi’ and the ‘Dandarawi’ (Table 3). According to Berte (1987),
two local breeds are mainly used by farmers in Burkina Faso - the ‘African
chicken’ and the ‘Kondé chicken’ (which probably originated from Zabré and
Tenkodogo in Burkina Faso, the Atacora region in Benin and the Tchaoudja in
Togo). Three local strains of ‘African chicken’ are described in Burkina Faso: the
‘Fulani chicken’ with white feathers resembling the Leghorn, the ‘Djeligodji
chicken’ or ‘Dori chicken’ with multicoloured feathers (grey, tawny or black) and
the ‘chicken of the centre’ or ‘grey chicken’ which is the most widespread strain
with local names in different languages (i.e. ‘kolocissai’ in Dioula and ‘no liguidi’
in mooré). The ‘Kondé chicken’ is a squat bird (1.8 kg live weight) with robust
legs, ash grey feathers, a well developed simple comb and vividly orange-
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 54, March 1998
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Village egg and fowl meut production in Africa: ~3. Guèye
coloured eyes. In reality, it is not irrefutable that these names represent true
‘breeds’, except for Egypt. It is therefore necessary to determine whether or not
these names are merely phenotypic descriptions since Kassambara (7989)
described 15 ‘breeds’ of indigenous fowl in Mali based entirely on feather colour.
In the whole African continent local stocks are descended from disorderly
crossings of local and exotic strains. There is no systematic breeding system. The
concept of ‘breed’ is therefore not correct.
Indigenous fowl tend to be very robust and are well adapted to harsh
environmental conditions such as hot or cold weather, rain and periodic feed
shortages. Plumage colours of the indigenous fowl vary from simple colours (e.g.
white, black, red) to a11 possible combinations including gold, silver, fawn and
mottling. A survey of 275 village farmers in Nigeria (Sonaiya and Olori, 1989;
Sonaiya, 1990a) revealed that 75% of fowl showed smooth and multicoloured
feathers, 12% had frizzled feathers, 6% were naked neck fowl and 4% were dwarf
fowl. According to farmers, multi-colours serve as a camouflage for the Young
chicks against aerial predators such as hawks and kites which easily pick out
simple colours, especially white. Furthermore, white fowl are more likely to be
thieved because such birds are embedded in the folklore of many human groups.
Management systems
The types of husbandry mostly practised for village fowl production in Africa are
the free range and backyard systems. The free range system, which in some cases
is known as ‘traditional’ or ‘village’ system (Andrews,, 1990; El Houadfi, 1990) is
the most popular in rural areas (Veluw, 1987; Kabatange and Katule, 1989;
Kassambara, 1989; Musharaf, 1989; Assan, 1990; Lul, 1990; Kulube, 1990; Mbugua,
1990; Okot, 1990; Raveloson, 1990; Sonaiya, 1990a; Williaims, 1990; Sonaiya ef al.,
1992; Guèye and Bessei, 1996; Guèye, 1997a). Indigenous fowl are left to scavenge
around household compounds, feeding on available resources such as earth-
worms, household refuse, insects, residues from the harvest, etc. Generally their
feed is not supplemented with agricultural (by-) products apart from during
periods of food scarcity (Guèye, 1997a). There is also no clean water. Because of
the absence of shelter, birds perch on high places or they shelter in human
habitations (Sall, 1990) or in the kitchens (Ngou Ngoupayou, 1990; Okot, 1990).
However, this often causes problems when fowl are infested with external
parasites. In some cases the fowl are sheltered at night time in rudimentary coops,
often raised above the ground, which provide protection against bad weather and
night-time predators such as reptiles.
The backyard system, which is called the ‘family’ or “subsistence’ system (Berte,
1987; Nkodia, 1990; Aklobessi, 19901, is practised by some farmers (Upindi, 1990;
Zoungrana and Slenders, 1992). In the backyard system birds spend the night in
constructed shelters with water and supplementary grain generally being
provided. In both systems birds almost never receive veterinary tare.
Because village fowl are maintained with very low levels of input (land, labour
and capital), they cari be kept by those in the poorest social strata of rural
populations. However, because of the low productivity, indigenous fowl
production in most African countries has been denigrated or even ridiculed and
it is frequently considered by farmers as an insignificant
secondary occupation
when compared with other agricultural activities. Nevertheless, the sustainahility
of this type of production system under the harsh village conditions has been
largely demonstrated (Bessei, 1996).
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World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 54, March 1998
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Village egg and fowl meat production in Africa: @F. Guèye
In most African countries women (El Houadfi, 1990; Scola, 1992) and children
(Veluw, 1987; Musharaf, 1989; LUI, 1990; Kitalyi, 1996; Bonfoh, 1997; Guèye, 1997a)
play the key role in flock management. There is a tendency for management to be
better in the case of larger flocks. In Egypt married women keep larger flocks of
village fowl than widows (Aboul-Ella, 1992).
Common diseases and mortality
One of the major constraints to village fowl production in Africa is undoubtedly
the existence of various diseases. According to the accounts of poultry farmers in
the Gambia reported by Bonfoh (1997), the most prevalent diseases are Newcastle
disease (88%), fowl pox (6%), fowl choiera (3%) and coccidiosis (3%). In Nigeria
farmers mentioned Newcastle disease (61 %o), respiratory diseases (14%), fowl pox
(7%), pullorum/diarrhoea (7%) and fowl choiera (4%) as affecting their chicken
flocks (Atteh, 1989). These farmers’ findings have been confirmed by laboratory
investigations, demonstrating that village farmers tend to be good poultry
specialists. Thus, Sa’idu et al. (1994), in a 15 year laboratory study of indigenous
fowl in Nigeria (October 1976-19911, showed that the commonest and most
significant causes of mortality were Newcastle disease (41%), infectious bursal
diseases (19%), fowl pox (19%), ectoparasitism e.g. lice and mites (27%), and
endoparasitism e.g. Tetmmeres SP., Syngamus sp. and tapeworms (31%). There
were also various parasitic associations in village fowl.
In many African countries Newcastle disease is the most serious endemic
disease (Bell, 1990; Demey, 1990; Mussime, 1992b; Spradbrow, 1993/94; Bell, 1996;
Verwoerd, 1996) which devastates village poultry population in periodical
outbreaks. Sonaiya et al. (1992) reported that major outbreaks of Newcastle
disease regularly occur at the peak of rains (June/July) when it is wet and cold.
However, according to village farmers in Senegal outbreaks occur generally
during the dry season, from January to June, and the affected birds show
neurological symptoms which manifest in strangely ‘mad’ behaviour. There is a
belief that bad spirits that originally have the family as a target are diverted to the
birds. This partially explains why in most Senegalese village households there is
a fowl flock.
Rearing losses are severe, with high mortality in Young chicks being an
important component. It is estimated that mortality of indigenous fowl under
traditional management systems is 50% up to eight weeks of age in Burkina Faso
(Wilson, 1986) and Northern Ghana (Veluw, 1987), 66% by 12 weeks of age in
Senegal (Sall, 1990; Buldgen et a/., 1992), 30-50% up to four weeks of age in Mali
(Kounta, 1992), 68% up to six weeks in Nigeria (Ologhobo, 19921, and 53% up to
four weeks of age in Cameroon (Agbédé et al., 1995). These high cumulative levels
of mortality influence the structure of the flocks. Thus, the numbers of chicks in
village fowl flocks are very high. In the Thiès and Fatick regions of Senegal about
half the village fowl are less than one month old (Buldgen et al., 1992). In Niger
chicks constitute about 33% of the fowl flocks (Bell and Abdou, 1995) and in the
Gambia about 65% of the fowl flocks are chicks (Bonfoh, 1997).
Control of Newcastle disease
Village fowl are almost never vaccinated against Newcastle disease with
Western standard vaccines. In the Gambia one of the preventive measures
(‘vaccination’) traditionally used by farmers consists of blending excreta of any
wild birds with goat’s milk and giving the resulting mixture as a drink (Bonfoh,
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 54, March 1998
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Village egg and fowl meut production in Africa: $.E Guèye
1997). Wild birds are considered by farmers as reservoirs of Newcastle disease
virus. The findings of these farmers have been confirmed by Martin (1992) who
reported that velogenic, mesogenic and lentogenic strains of Newcastle disease
virus had been isolated from numerous species of wild birds a11 over the world,
and that they form a reservoir for the virus. In addition, some farmers were found
to use the entrails of fowl that had died from Newcastle disease to treat their birds
against this disease. The entrails are soaked in goat’s milk before being given to
the birds (Bonfoh, persona1 communication). The use of the milk is scientifically
well founded since it serves generally as a stabilizer for inactivated viruses in
vaccine preparations.
A variety of ethno-veterinary practices is widely used by farmers in Africa in
order to control Newcastle disease in village fowl. Plant products with recognized
medicinal properties are generally involved. In the absence of severe droughts as,
for example, those that occurred in the 1970s and 1980s in Sahelian countries, they
are far more accessible to villagers than the drugs used in Western veterinary
treatments because they cari be collected at no cost or are cheap to obtain (Guèye,
1997a). Thus, the bark of Par!& filicoidpu in Nigeria, the leaves of Cnssig
didymobofryu or the latex of Euphorbia mafabelensis in Zimbabwe, the stem of
Euphorbia candelabrum Kofschy var. candelabrum or the fruit of Capsicum anrruum
together with the leaves of lboza rnnltifloua in Tanzania are put into drinking water
for the whole flock (Bizimana, 1994). In Senegal the bark of Khaya senegalensis and
Capsicum sp. extracts are soaked in drinking water (field observations) and the
bark of Mangiferu indica in drinking water is used in the Gambia (Bonfoh, 1997).
Moreover, in addition to Newcastle disease, Capsicum spp. are reported to be
widely used to treat various unknown diseases (Kassam.bara, 1989; Assan, 1990;
Nkodia, 1990; Okot, 1990; Sonaiya et al., 1992; Bonfoh, 1997; Guèye, 1997a). The
suggestion is that capsaicin, the pungent agent in Capsicum spp., increases the
resistance of birds to major health threats.
Growth, egg production and reproductive performance
Indigenous fowl are used for the production of bath meat and eggs. They grow
very slowly and are rather small, with the adult females weighing about 1 kg and
adult males seldom more than 2 kg (Table 4). However, ‘Kondé chicken’ in Burkina
Faso (Berte, 1987), ‘Baladi’ in Sudan (Musharaf, 1989) and ‘Tsabatha’ in Cameroon
(Ngou Ngoupayou, 1990) are characterized by larger body weights and these
varieties show potential to be used as meat-type fowl.
The eviscerated carcass yield of indigenous fowl has been estimated to be 64% in
mature males and 54% in mature females in Nigeria (Joseph et al., 1992) and 79% in
males and 67% in females at 25 weeks in Senegal (Buldgen et al., 1992). Indigenous
fowl have small but well-fleshed and compact bodies. While the percentage water
and fat contents of carcasses do not appear to vary from 4 to 64 weeks of age in
males, the indigenous fowl in Nigeria show increasing protein contents, from 46%
at 4 weeks to 66% at 64 weeks of age (Adebanjo and Oluyemi, 1981). Cnrcass
composition is also affected by sex. In one study, working on a dry weight basis,
Joseph et al. (1992) found the meat of females to contain 20% fat compared with 17%)
in males. This, in turn, affected crude protein content (77.8% versus 74.8%) and ash
content (3.9% versus 3.7%) in males and females, respectively.
Village fowl are characterized by their late maturity. Sexual maturity of females
is estimated to be 32 weeks in Sudan (Wilson, 39179), 24 weeks in Mali
(Kassambara, 1989) and Nigeria (Sonaiya and Olori, 1989), 28-36 weeks in Benin
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World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 54, March 1998
Table 4 Production parameters of village fowl in Africa
Mature weight
(kg)
%N
Clutchesl
Egg production
Egg weight
Hatchability
Country
clutch
year
(eggs/hen/year)
(59
(‘io)
Males
Females
Reference
Benin
-
50-100
40
-
1.2-l .8
0.7-1.2
Assan (1990)
Burkina Faso
12-18
2.7-3.0
-
30-40
60-90
-
-
Bourzat and Saunders (1989)
Cameroon
-
50-80
30
82
2.5
1.3-l .8
Ngou Ngoupayou (1990)
Ghana
2.5
20
7 2
-
-
Veluw (1987)
Mali
8.8
2.1
35
34.4
69.1
1.6
1.02
Wilson et al. (1987)
Morocco
12-20
-
60-80
35-50
70
1.2
1.2
El Houadfi (1990)
Nigeria
10
2 - 3
-
-
80
-
-
Sonaiya (1990a)
Senegal
8-15
4 - 5
40-50
40
80
1.8
1.2
Sa11 (1990)
Sudan
10.9
4.5
50
40.6
90
2.1
1.3
Wilson (1979)
Tanzania
12-13
3
36
37.9-49.5
-
1.2-2.9
1 .o-2.1
Katule (1992)
-, not reported.
EV
Village egg and fowl meut production in Africa: j4.F. Guèye
(Assan, 1990), 25 weeks in Senegal (Sali, 1990) and 28 weeks in Tanzania (Katule,
1992). However, by the improvement of feeding and husbandry systems, sexual
maturity may be earlier, i.e. from 25 to 20 weeks (Table 5). Genetic upgrading
through crossing with exotic stocks may also bring sexual maturity forward from
28-36 weeks to 18-20 weeks (Assan, 1990).
Egg production of indigenous fowl is very low. Under village conditions the
annual egg production per bird ranges from 20 to 100 eggs with an average
weight ranging from about 30 to 50g (Table 4). Egg production in rural areas
follows a pattern of S-10 week periods of production with intervening periods of
broodiness. The process of maturation of the ovum has been reported to take
10-15 days (Sall, 1990), 15 days (Savané, 1996) in Senegal, and 16 days (Katule,
1992) in Tanzania. These contribute to rates of oviposition of two eggs in three
days or one egg in two days. In practice, annual egg production exceeding 80 eggs
is seldom achieved under extensive conditions. However, with improved feeding
and husbandry performances have been reported of 90-‘100 eggs in Senegal (Sali,
1990; Buldgen et a/., 1992), 100 eggs in Cameroon (Ngou Ngoupayou, 1990) and
over 150 eggs per bird in Tanzania (Kabatange and Katule, 1989). The frequency
of egg collection plays an important role in determining egg production. Daily
collection of eggs postpones broodiness and thus leads to higher egg production
(Guèye and Bessei, 1997).
Few of the eggs of village fowl are consumed, most are allowed to incubate
under the mother hen because farmers in Africa are aware of high mortality,
especially in growing birds. In most cases keeping at least a small flock is the
major concern. Indigenous stocks tend to bave good mothering ability. The
hatchability f
s is estimated to be more than 70% (‘&Me 4) and is correlated
with the
T
male/ emale ratio (r = -0.67, p < 0.05). According to Wilson et al.
(1987) and Kassambara (1989), hatchability is seasomally affected with the
poorest results occurring during the hot dry season. F,armers in Senegal claim
that indigenous birds with the naked neck gene (Na) show particularly good
brooding abilities.
Table 5 Reproductive parameters of the Senegalese indigenous fowl in a rural environment and
an experimental station with and without use of an additional artificial lighting programme
(LP), respectively
Experimental station
Rural
environment
With LP
Without LP
Age at sexual maturity (weeks)
2.5
20
20
Mean (SD) egg yield (%)
1 2
24 (13)”
26 (17)t
Mean (SD) egg weight (g)
40 (4)
44 (1)
40 (4)
Total egg production per annum
40-50
80-90
90-I 00
Mean (SD) feed intake (g/day/bird)
102 (14)
78 (17)
Cumulative feed conversion+
1 3
27
Fertility (%)
81
Hatchability of fertile eggs (%)
80
77
Source: Buldgen et al. (1992).
*In 30 laying weeks.
tIn 42 laying weeks.
$During 30 and 42 laying weeks, respectively.
8 2
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 54, March 1998
Genetic improvement
In addition to the major impact of environmental factors, the considerable
variation in performance parameters of village fowl in Africa is also obviously
affected by genetic components. Much variation has developed as a result of
random breeding within, and sometimes between, diverse populations (El
Houadfi, 1990; Sonaiya et al., 1992; Guèye and Bessei, 1995). Such birds cari be
improved genetically through selective breeding or by crossing with exotic stocks.
Exotic breeds characterized by high productivity and hardiness such as Rhode
Island Red, New Hampshire and Plymouth Rock are generally used (Anony-
mous, 1987). For example, Zaza (1992) reported on the higher egg and meat
production obtained in Egypt from improved crossbreeds compared with local
breeds (Tuble 3). However, this must not lead to the indigenous stocks being
neglected. They should be protected for two main reasons. Firstly, indigenous
fowl represent an important reservoir of genetic variation that should be
conserved. Secondly, these birds are well adapted to extensive husbandry systems
and are utterly suitable for poultry farmers endowed with very limited means, as
is SO often the case in African rural areas.
Conclusions
In Africa the indigenous fowl are known to have some disadvantages arising from
their slow growth and poor egg production, their late sexual maturity and the fact
that they suffer high rearing mortality. However, the production of these birds is
characterized by many advantages such as good egg and meat flavour, hard egg
shells, high dressing percentages, and especially low cost with little special tare
required for production. They are therefore well suited to the very limited input
that the mainly poor producers cari provide. However, efforts to increase
productivity through improvements in health, feeding, housing, genetics and
daily management should be encouraged as they Will result in increased
economic return.
The International Network for Family Poultry Development (INFPD) has been
set up to co-ordinate research, training and/or extension in relation to village
poultry production. Among the objectives of the INFPD is the encouragement of
higher standards through reporting results, providing advice, and disseminating
these through its biannual and bilingual (English and French) newsletter.
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86
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 54, March 1998
Village egg and fowl meat
production in Africa
EL HADJI FALLOU GUÈYE
Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, B.P. 2057, Dakar-Hann,
Sénégal
Throughout the continent of Africa the keeping of indigenous fowl by village
communities has been practised for many generations. These birds, which are
generally kept on a free range system, currently make up more than 80% of the
continent’s poultry flock. Although requiring minimal resource input and
considered secondary to other agricultural activities by farmers, this type of
production has an important role in supplying local populations with
additional income and high quality protein. However, high mortality, espe-
cially in growers, constitutes the greatest constraint on development. Indige-
nous fowl are not a particular variety but are the result of erratic crosses
between local and imported stocks. Growth and egg production of the
indigenous birds are low and their limits of performance are rapidly reached
when feeding and management are improved. However, the meat and eggs are
much preferred by the consumers and fetch premium prices compared with
commercial birds. The genetic potential of the indigenous stocks could be
improved through crossing with selected but still robust varieties.
Keywords: Africa, eggs, meat, mortality, Newcastle disease, production, village
fowl
Introduction
African livestock population statistics for 1995 indicate poultry to be the most
numerous species of farm animal (Anonymous, 1996a). More than 80% of
poultry are kept in rural areas and contribute substantially to annual egg and
meat production (Sonaiya, 1997). Throughout Africa poultry production stems
from ancient traditional practices. Domestic fowl are the most important type
of poultry kept on the continent. In general, village producers keep small
flocks of between 5 and 20 birds per household (Guèye, 1997a). Women and
children play a key role in their management (Kitalyi, 1996; Guèye, 1997a).
The fowl are generally raised on a free range system and they survive as
scavengers. Rudimentary coops or shelters may be provided to give some
protection against bad weather and night predators such as reptiles. Thus,
0 World’s Poultry Science Association 1998
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 54, March 1998
--
-
--
Village egg and fowl meut producfion in Africa: p4.F. Guèye
village fowl in Africa are maintained with very low land, labour and capital
inputs and cari therefore be kept by even the poorest social strata of the rural
population.
Because of low productivity, indigenous fowl production in Africa has been
neglected and is frequently considered by farmers as an insignificant occupation
compared with other agricultural activities. Nevertheless, outside urban centres,
and especially in non-coastal areas, village fowl provide the population with a
vital source of protein and income. In addition, they play an important role within
the context of many social and/or religious ceremonies. This paper reviews the
most relevant information available in Africa relating to the traditional extensive
husbandry system of fowl production.
Socioeconomic and nutritional importance
The human population in Africa is estimated to be 728 million (Anonymous,
1996b), while the total fowl popuïation of the continent was estimated as 1068
million in 1995 (Anonymous, 1996a), producing 1695 620 metric tons of eggs and
2096000 metric tons of meat (Anonymous, 199613). Domestic fowl are kept by
almost every village household. Because most reports underestimate the true
numbers, village fowl probably make up more than 80% of the total fowl
population (Table 2). This is in line with the findings of Sonaiya (1995) who
reported the same proportion. Moreover, in some African countries (Table 11 the
ratio of village fowl to village human population is about 1.5. Thus, there are
approximately three fowl for every two people.
Table 1 Estimated populations of village fowl in some African countries, their contribution to
the national flocks and the ratio of village fowl population to village human population
Village
fowl as a
Ratio of
percentage
village fowl
Village fowl
of the
population to
population
national
village human
Country
(millions)
flock
population
Reference
Cameroon
11.2
7 0
1.57t
Ngou Ngoupayou (1995)
Central African Republic
2.2
80
1.06t
Anonymous (1997)
Ivory Coast
15.4
7 3
2.44t
Diambra (1990)
Ethiopia
55.9
99
1.22t
Yami (1995)
Gambia
0.9s
9 0
1.32
Andrews (1990)
Kenya
16.1
70
0.84
Musiime (1992a)
Lesotho
1.6
1.12t
Khomari (1992)
Malawi
12.0
90
1.46t
Upindi (1990)
Mali
18.0
90
2.50t
Kounta (1992)
Nigeria
123.9
93
2.59t
Ologhobo (1992)
Senegal
11.1
70
2.22t
Guèye (1997b)
Sudan
21.0
70
1.09
El Zubeir (1990)
Tanzania
21.0
75
1.14
Kabatange and Katule (1989)
Togo
3.9
70
1.55
Lobi (1984)
Uganda
16.0
8 0
1.01t
Mukiibi-Muka (1992)
Zimbabwe
8.9-10.7
25-30
1.41t
Kulube (1990)
*Calculated from data of Ihe year 1995 (Anonymous, 1996a).
tAuthor’s estimate.
74
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 54, March 1998
E.
Village egg ad fowl meat production in Africa: ,&.E Guèye
In general, in rural areas throughout the African continent a11 ethnie groups are
involved in poultry production. In addition to providing farmers with eggs and
meat for their home consumption, poultry are kept for a variety of other reasons.
The sale (or barter) of poultry products enables poultry keepers to obtain money
to spend on their own and family needs. In the context of intra- and inter-
community exchanges, indigenous fowl have a symbolic importance within many
social activities (e.g. special banquets for distinguished guests, gifts) and/or
religious ceremonies (e.g. cocks as offerings to the deities) (Veluw, 1987; Lul, 1990;
Okot, 1990; Sonaiya, 1990a, 1990b; Williams, 1990; Kounta, 1991; Buldgen et nl.,
1992; Zoungrana and Slenders, 1992; Spradbrow, 1993/94; Bell and Abdou, 1995;
Guèye and Bessei, 1995; Yami, 1995). In the Western Middle-Belt region of Nigeria,
Atteh (1989) reported the reasons for keeping village fowls as being 11% for
income alone, 28% for consumption alone, 45% for income and consumption, 3%
for ceremonies, 11% for income and ceremonies, 3% for consumption and
ceremonies and 1% for ornament. In the Keita region of Niger home consumption
accounted for 47%, sales for 38% and gifts for 16% (Bell and Abdou, 1995). When
the traditional society of the Mamprusi tribe in Northern Ghana is considered,
Veluw (1987) reported that the uses of poultry were 35% for sacrifice, 28% for sale,
15% for consumption, 13% for gifts and 10% for breeding stock, while 71%’ of the
eggs were set aside for hatching, 18% for sale, 5% for consumption and 5% for
gifts. Additionally, indigenous fowl play an important role in traditional medicine
(LU~, 1990; Ngou Ngoupayou, 1990,1995).
Flock sizes for a number of African countries are shown in Table 2. It cari be seen
that relatively larger flock sizes are reported from Madagascar and Mali. In the
latter country the survey was carried out in areas where farmers benefit from the
effects of a development project (‘Projet Sectoriel de l’Elevage’). Furthermore,
flock sizes cari vary depending on factors such as the season in which the survey
is carried out and the occurrence of diseases. Guèye (1997a) reported that flock
sizes generally range from 5 to 20 fowl per African village household.
Table 2 Estimated numbers of domestic fowl per village
household in various countries
Country
Number
Source
Benin
7-12
Assan (1990)
Cameroon
10.3
Ngou Ngoupayou (1990)
Congo
1 9
Nkodia (1990)
Ethiopia
6
Yami (1995)
Kenya
7-14
Mbugua (1990)
Madagascar
20-50
Raveloson (1990)
Mali
20-30
Kounta (1991)
Morocco
2-40
El Houadfi (1990)
Niger
1 2
Bell and Abdou (1995)
Nigeria
14.1
Sonaiya (1990a)
Senegal
1 0
Sali (1990)
Somalia
5-15
Lu1 (1990)
Sudan
5-10
El Zubeir (1990)
Tanzania
1 2
Kabatange and Katule (1989)
Togo
21
Aklobessi (1990)
Uganda
2-20
Okot (1990)
Zimbabwe
20-25
Kulube (1990)
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 54, March 1998
75
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~----_
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6
Village egg and fowl meat production in Afvica: F.F. Guèye
The male to female ratios in village fowl flocks in Africa were found to be 3.5:1
in Central Mali (Kuit et al., 1986),4.9:1 in the Thiès and Fatick regions of Senegal
(Sali, 1990), 2.3:1 in the Ivory Coast (Diambra, 19901, 3.1:l in Niger (Bell and
Abdou, 1995), 1.9:1 in South Western Nigeria (Sonaiya and Olori, 1989) and 1.4:1
in the Central River Division of Gambia (Bonfoh, 1997). The numbers of males
tend to be lower in flocks with high proportions of growers, and to be higher in
larger flocks. Males are generally removed from the flocks at an early age for sale,
home consumption or cultural purposes.
The information available in the literature about the ownership patterns of
village fowl indicates that women, assisted in some cases by children, are the
main keepers. According to Atteh (1989), village fowl kept in Nigeria are largely
owned by women (86%) compared with 14% by men. Comparable figures were
also reported for Nigeria (78%, versus 22%) by Sonaiya and Olori (1989). The
ownership pattern of village fowl in the Gambia was found to be 47% by women,
38% by the whole family, 12% by men and 3% by women and children (Bonfoh,
1997). Savané (1996) reported that, in the Kolda region of Senegal, about 54% and
46% of the poultry owners were women and men, respectively. By contrast,
according to Bell and Abdou (1995), about 83% and 17%) of fowl in Niger are
owned by men and women, respectively. These data patterns generally
underestimate the proportion owned by women (and thus overestimate that by
men) because, in most cases, only men could be interviewed. This is a
consequence
of the dominating position held by men in most African societies.
General statements on ownership cari also be misleading because there are
different modes of acquisition of domestic fowl (e.g. purchase or barter, gifts or
inheritance).
In spite of the small numbers of fowl kept by village farmers, the contribution
of this sector to national egg and meat production is substantial. Village poultry
were estimated to account for 12.4% of the estimated 192 640 metric tons of eggs
produced in Nigeria in 1987 (Sonaiya, 1997). In Côte d’ivoire the village poultry
population provided about 69’% of the 21500 metric tons of poultry meat and 26%’
of the 12200 metric tons of eggs produced in 1984 (Diambra, 1990). In Morocco
about 26% of the 117000 metric tons of poultry meat and 36% of the 1100 million
eggs produced in 1989 came from indigenous fowl (El Houadfi, 1990). In reality
these proportions are probably higher at present becaus’e commercial producers
have to tope with various supply bottlenecks due to their high dependence on
imports (which need hard currencies) and because of periodic shortages of feed
and other inputs (Ngou Ngoupayou, 1990; Guèye, 19971:).
Compared with eggs and fowl meat from commercial flocks derived from
imported stocks, those from indigenous stocks are strongly preferred by African
consumers (Adebanjo and Oluyemi, 1981; Horst, 1989; Oluyemi, 1989; Mbugua,
1990; Ngou Ngoupayou, 1990; Raveloson, 1990; Guèye and Bessei, 1996, 1997).
They therefore fetch premium prices. For example, the average indigenous fowl
meat prices in 1995 in Dakar, Senegal varied from US$;!.54 to US$3.93 per kg at
markets and supermarkets, respectively. These amounted to premiums of about
13% at markets and 27% at supermarkets in comparison with the prices of meat
from commercial fowl. Thus, well-off people in supermarkets appear willing to
pay more in order to get indigenous fowl meat. However, in Nigeria the prices
from itinerant retailers for local and exotic growers were the same, while market
prices for male birds were two to three times higher than for females, i.e. US$4.08-
5.10 for mature males and US$1.6:3-2.04 for mature females (Sonaiya rt L?/., 1992).
There is a dearth of information on comparative egg prices.
7 6
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 54, March 19%
Village egg and fowl meat production in Africa: fi.F. Guèye
Table 3 Productive traits of local breeds and of improved crossbreeds in Egypt
Productive traits
Mature
Mature
Number
%
male
female
of eggs
weight
weight
weight
Breeds
Origin
w
w
w
Fayomi
Local breed
160
4 2
1950
1650
Dandarawi
Local breed
153
48
1950
1780
Dokki 4
Fayomi X Plymouth
167
50
2460
1780
Matrouh
Dokki X Leghorn
192
5 7
2380
1700
Golden montazah
Dokki X Rhode Island Red
199
55
2700
2000
Silver montazah
Dokki X Rhode Island Red
205
5 4
2500
1890
Mamoura
Dokki X Iskandrani
185
5 5
3120
2430
Mandarah
Dokki X Iskandrani
180
5 7
2800
2150
Gemeza
Dokki X Plymouth White
180
5 7
2800
2150
Elsalam
Manoura X Nichols
175
58
3520
2630
Bandarah
Gemeza X Cornish White
180
65
3500
2800
Source: Zaza (1992)
‘Breeds’
The domestic fowl (Callus ~&US), reared in African rural areas, has been described
by many authors (Anonymous, 1987; Oluyemi, 1989; Aklobessi, 1990; LUI, 1990;
Raveloson, 1990; Sonaiya, 1990b; Buldgen et a1.,1992; Guèye and Bessei, 1996).
Various workers use common terms such as ‘African chicken’, ‘bush chicken’ or
‘runner chicken’ to describe the indigenous fowl (Berte, 1987; Kounta, 1991;
Guèye and Bessei, 1997). However, distinct local varieties are reported from some
African countries. In Sudan there are ‘Baladi’ which are characterized by large
body weight at 12 months (i.e. 1.37 kg for the female and 1.88 kg for the male),
have a wide range of feather colours and a small ‘crushed’ comb, ‘Bare Neck
chicken’ with featherless neck and small body weight of 1.1 kg at maturity and the
layer strain ‘Betwil’ which produces 70-80 40g eggs per year under the
traditional husbandry system (Musharaf, 1989). The Moroccan ‘Beldi’ shows great
ability to convert unconventional feedstuffs into meat (El Houadfi, 1990). Ngou
Ngoupayou (1990) reported on the indigenous fowl in Cameroon which include
‘Dzaye’ with white feathers, ‘Dongwe’ with black feathers, the meat-type
‘Tsabatha’ with mixed coloured feathers (grey, black and white) and a layer strain
called ‘Zarwa’. In Egypt Zaza (1992) reported on the productive traits of two local
breeds - the ‘Fayomi’ and the ‘Dandarawi’ (Table 3). According to Berte (1987),
two local breeds are mainly used by farmers in Burkina Faso - the ‘African
chicken’ and the ‘Kondé chicken’ (which probably originated from Zabré and
Tenkodogo in Burkina Faso, the Atacora region in Benin and the Tchaoudja in
Togo). Three local strains of ‘African chicken’ are described in Burkina Faso: the
‘Fulani chicken’ with white feathers resembling the Leghorn, the ‘Djeligodji
chicken’ or ‘Dori chicken’ with multicoloured feathers (grey, tawny or black) and
the ‘chicken of the centre’ or ‘grey chicken’ which is the most widespread strain
with local names in different languages (i.e. ‘kolocissai’ in Dioula and ‘no liguidi’
in mooré). The ‘Kondé chicken’ is a squat bird (1.8 kg live weight) with robust
legs, ash grey feathers, a well developed simple comb and vividly orange-
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 54, March 1998
77
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E*
Village egg and fowl meut production in Africa: ~3. Guèye
coloured eyes. In reality, it is not irrefutable that these names represent true
‘breeds’, except for Egypt. It is therefore necessary to determine whether or not
these names are merely phenotypic descriptions since Kassambara (7989)
described 15 ‘breeds’ of indigenous fowl in Mali based entirely on feather colour.
In the whole African continent local stocks are descended from disorderly
crossings of local and exotic strains. There is no systematic breeding system. The
concept of ‘breed’ is therefore not correct.
Indigenous fowl tend to be very robust and are well adapted to harsh
environmental conditions such as hot or cold weather, rain and periodic feed
shortages. Plumage colours of the indigenous fowl vary from simple colours (e.g.
white, black, red) to a11 possible combinations including gold, silver, fawn and
mottling. A survey of 275 village farmers in Nigeria (Sonaiya and Olori, 1989;
Sonaiya, 1990a) revealed that 75% of fowl showed smooth and multicoloured
feathers, 12% had frizzled feathers, 6% were naked neck fowl and 4% were dwarf
fowl. According to farmers, multi-colours serve as a camouflage for the Young
chicks against aerial predators such as hawks and kites which easily pick out
simple colours, especially white. Furthermore, white fowl are more likely to be
thieved because such birds are embedded in the folklore of many human groups.
Management systems
The types of husbandry mostly practised for village fowl production in Africa are
the free range and backyard systems. The free range system, which in some cases
is known as ‘traditional’ or ‘village’ system (Andrews,, 1990; El Houadfi, 1990) is
the most popular in rural areas (Veluw, 1987; Kabatange and Katule, 1989;
Kassambara, 1989; Musharaf, 1989; Assan, 1990; Lul, 1990; Kulube, 1990; Mbugua,
1990; Okot, 1990; Raveloson, 1990; Sonaiya, 1990a; Williaims, 1990; Sonaiya ef al.,
1992; Guèye and Bessei, 1996; Guèye, 1997a). Indigenous fowl are left to scavenge
around household compounds, feeding on available resources such as earth-
worms, household refuse, insects, residues from the harvest, etc. Generally their
feed is not supplemented with agricultural (by-) products apart from during
periods of food scarcity (Guèye, 1997a). There is also no clean water. Because of
the absence of shelter, birds perch on high places or they shelter in human
habitations (Sall, 1990) or in the kitchens (Ngou Ngoupayou, 1990; Okot, 1990).
However, this often causes problems when fowl are infested with external
parasites. In some cases the fowl are sheltered at night time in rudimentary coops,
often raised above the ground, which provide protection against bad weather and
night-time predators such as reptiles.
The backyard system, which is called the ‘family’ or “subsistence’ system (Berte,
1987; Nkodia, 1990; Aklobessi, 19901, is practised by some farmers (Upindi, 1990;
Zoungrana and Slenders, 1992). In the backyard system birds spend the night in
constructed shelters with water and supplementary grain generally being
provided. In both systems birds almost never receive veterinary tare.
Because village fowl are maintained with very low levels of input (land, labour
and capital), they cari be kept by those in the poorest social strata of rural
populations. However, because of the low productivity, indigenous fowl
production in most African countries has been denigrated or even ridiculed and
it is frequently considered by farmers as an insignificant
secondary occupation
when compared with other agricultural activities. Nevertheless, the sustainahility
of this type of production system under the harsh village conditions has been
largely demonstrated (Bessei, 1996).
7 8
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 54, March 1998
F.
Village egg and fowl meat production in Africa: @F. Guèye
In most African countries women (El Houadfi, 1990; Scola, 1992) and children
(Veluw, 1987; Musharaf, 1989; LUI, 1990; Kitalyi, 1996; Bonfoh, 1997; Guèye, 1997a)
play the key role in flock management. There is a tendency for management to be
better in the case of larger flocks. In Egypt married women keep larger flocks of
village fowl than widows (Aboul-Ella, 1992).
Common diseases and mortality
One of the major constraints to village fowl production in Africa is undoubtedly
the existence of various diseases. According to the accounts of poultry farmers in
the Gambia reported by Bonfoh (1997), the most prevalent diseases are Newcastle
disease (88%), fowl pox (6%), fowl choiera (3%) and coccidiosis (3%). In Nigeria
farmers mentioned Newcastle disease (61 %o), respiratory diseases (14%), fowl pox
(7%), pullorum/diarrhoea (7%) and fowl choiera (4%) as affecting their chicken
flocks (Atteh, 1989). These farmers’ findings have been confirmed by laboratory
investigations, demonstrating that village farmers tend to be good poultry
specialists. Thus, Sa’idu et al. (1994), in a 15 year laboratory study of indigenous
fowl in Nigeria (October 1976-19911, showed that the commonest and most
significant causes of mortality were Newcastle disease (41%), infectious bursal
diseases (19%), fowl pox (19%), ectoparasitism e.g. lice and mites (27%), and
endoparasitism e.g. Tetmmeres SP., Syngamus sp. and tapeworms (31%). There
were also various parasitic associations in village fowl.
In many African countries Newcastle disease is the most serious endemic
disease (Bell, 1990; Demey, 1990; Mussime, 1992b; Spradbrow, 1993/94; Bell, 1996;
Verwoerd, 1996) which devastates village poultry population in periodical
outbreaks. Sonaiya et al. (1992) reported that major outbreaks of Newcastle
disease regularly occur at the peak of rains (June/July) when it is wet and cold.
However, according to village farmers in Senegal outbreaks occur generally
during the dry season, from January to June, and the affected birds show
neurological symptoms which manifest in strangely ‘mad’ behaviour. There is a
belief that bad spirits that originally have the family as a target are diverted to the
birds. This partially explains why in most Senegalese village households there is
a fowl flock.
Rearing losses are severe, with high mortality in Young chicks being an
important component. It is estimated that mortality of indigenous fowl under
traditional management systems is 50% up to eight weeks of age in Burkina Faso
(Wilson, 1986) and Northern Ghana (Veluw, 1987), 66% by 12 weeks of age in
Senegal (Sall, 1990; Buldgen et a/., 1992), 30-50% up to four weeks of age in Mali
(Kounta, 1992), 68% up to six weeks in Nigeria (Ologhobo, 19921, and 53% up to
four weeks of age in Cameroon (Agbédé et al., 1995). These high cumulative levels
of mortality influence the structure of the flocks. Thus, the numbers of chicks in
village fowl flocks are very high. In the Thiès and Fatick regions of Senegal about
half the village fowl are less than one month old (Buldgen et al., 1992). In Niger
chicks constitute about 33% of the fowl flocks (Bell and Abdou, 1995) and in the
Gambia about 65% of the fowl flocks are chicks (Bonfoh, 1997).
Control of Newcastle disease
Village fowl are almost never vaccinated against Newcastle disease with
Western standard vaccines. In the Gambia one of the preventive measures
(‘vaccination’) traditionally used by farmers consists of blending excreta of any
wild birds with goat’s milk and giving the resulting mixture as a drink (Bonfoh,
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 54, March 1998
‘7’9
E”
Village egg and fowl meut production in Africa: $.E Guèye
1997). Wild birds are considered by farmers as reservoirs of Newcastle disease
virus. The findings of these farmers have been confirmed by Martin (1992) who
reported that velogenic, mesogenic and lentogenic strains of Newcastle disease
virus had been isolated from numerous species of wild birds a11 over the world,
and that they form a reservoir for the virus. In addition, some farmers were found
to use the entrails of fowl that had died from Newcastle disease to treat their birds
against this disease. The entrails are soaked in goat’s milk before being given to
the birds (Bonfoh, persona1 communication). The use of the milk is scientifically
well founded since it serves generally as a stabilizer for inactivated viruses in
vaccine preparations.
A variety of ethno-veterinary practices is widely used by farmers in Africa in
order to control Newcastle disease in village fowl. Plant products with recognized
medicinal properties are generally involved. In the absence of severe droughts as,
for example, those that occurred in the 1970s and 1980s in Sahelian countries, they
are far more accessible to villagers than the drugs used in Western veterinary
treatments because they cari be collected at no cost or are cheap to obtain (Guèye,
1997a). Thus, the bark of Par!& filicoidpu in Nigeria, the leaves of Cnssig
didymobofryu or the latex of Euphorbia mafabelensis in Zimbabwe, the stem of
Euphorbia candelabrum Kofschy var. candelabrum or the fruit of Capsicum anrruum
together with the leaves of lboza rnnltifloua in Tanzania are put into drinking water
for the whole flock (Bizimana, 1994). In Senegal the bark of Khaya senegalensis and
Capsicum sp. extracts are soaked in drinking water (field observations) and the
bark of Mangiferu indica in drinking water is used in the Gambia (Bonfoh, 1997).
Moreover, in addition to Newcastle disease, Capsicum spp. are reported to be
widely used to treat various unknown diseases (Kassam.bara, 1989; Assan, 1990;
Nkodia, 1990; Okot, 1990; Sonaiya et al., 1992; Bonfoh, 1997; Guèye, 1997a). The
suggestion is that capsaicin, the pungent agent in Capsicum spp., increases the
resistance of birds to major health threats.
Growth, egg production and reproductive performance
Indigenous fowl are used for the production of bath meat and eggs. They grow
very slowly and are rather small, with the adult females weighing about 1 kg and
adult males seldom more than 2 kg (Table 4). However, ‘Kondé chicken’ in Burkina
Faso (Berte, 1987), ‘Baladi’ in Sudan (Musharaf, 1989) and ‘Tsabatha’ in Cameroon
(Ngou Ngoupayou, 1990) are characterized by larger body weights and these
varieties show potential to be used as meat-type fowl.
The eviscerated carcass yield of indigenous fowl has been estimated to be 64% in
mature males and 54% in mature females in Nigeria (Joseph et al., 1992) and 79% in
males and 67% in females at 25 weeks in Senegal (Buldgen et al., 1992). Indigenous
fowl have small but well-fleshed and compact bodies. While the percentage water
and fat contents of carcasses do not appear to vary from 4 to 64 weeks of age in
males, the indigenous fowl in Nigeria show increasing protein contents, from 46%
at 4 weeks to 66% at 64 weeks of age (Adebanjo and Oluyemi, 1981). Cnrcass
composition is also affected by sex. In one study, working on a dry weight basis,
Joseph et al. (1992) found the meat of females to contain 20% fat compared with 17%)
in males. This, in turn, affected crude protein content (77.8% versus 74.8%) and ash
content (3.9% versus 3.7%) in males and females, respectively.
Village fowl are characterized by their late maturity. Sexual maturity of females
is estimated to be 32 weeks in Sudan (Wilson, 39179), 24 weeks in Mali
(Kassambara, 1989) and Nigeria (Sonaiya and Olori, 1989), 28-36 weeks in Benin
8 0
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 54, March 1998
Table 4 Production parameters of village fowl in Africa
Mature weight
(kg)
%N
Clutchesl
Egg production
Egg weight
Hatchability
Country
clutch
year
(eggs/hen/year)
(59
(‘io)
Males
Females
Reference
Benin
-
50-100
40
-
1.2-l .8
0.7-1.2
Assan (1990)
Burkina Faso
12-18
2.7-3.0
-
30-40
60-90
-
-
Bourzat and Saunders (1989)
Cameroon
-
50-80
30
82
2.5
1.3-l .8
Ngou Ngoupayou (1990)
Ghana
2.5
20
7 2
-
-
Veluw (1987)
Mali
8.8
2.1
35
34.4
69.1
1.6
1.02
Wilson et al. (1987)
Morocco
12-20
-
60-80
35-50
70
1.2
1.2
El Houadfi (1990)
Nigeria
10
2 - 3
-
-
80
-
-
Sonaiya (1990a)
Senegal
8-15
4 - 5
40-50
40
80
1.8
1.2
Sa11 (1990)
Sudan
10.9
4.5
50
40.6
90
2.1
1.3
Wilson (1979)
Tanzania
12-13
3
36
37.9-49.5
-
1.2-2.9
1 .o-2.1
Katule (1992)
-, not reported.
EV
Village egg and fowl meut production in Africa: j4.F. Guèye
(Assan, 1990), 25 weeks in Senegal (Sali, 1990) and 28 weeks in Tanzania (Katule,
1992). However, by the improvement of feeding and husbandry systems, sexual
maturity may be earlier, i.e. from 25 to 20 weeks (Table 5). Genetic upgrading
through crossing with exotic stocks may also bring sexual maturity forward from
28-36 weeks to 18-20 weeks (Assan, 1990).
Egg production of indigenous fowl is very low. Under village conditions the
annual egg production per bird ranges from 20 to 100 eggs with an average
weight ranging from about 30 to 50g (Table 4). Egg production in rural areas
follows a pattern of S-10 week periods of production with intervening periods of
broodiness. The process of maturation of the ovum has been reported to take
10-15 days (Sall, 1990), 15 days (Savané, 1996) in Senegal, and 16 days (Katule,
1992) in Tanzania. These contribute to rates of oviposition of two eggs in three
days or one egg in two days. In practice, annual egg production exceeding 80 eggs
is seldom achieved under extensive conditions. However, with improved feeding
and husbandry performances have been reported of 90-‘100 eggs in Senegal (Sali,
1990; Buldgen et a/., 1992), 100 eggs in Cameroon (Ngou Ngoupayou, 1990) and
over 150 eggs per bird in Tanzania (Kabatange and Katule, 1989). The frequency
of egg collection plays an important role in determining egg production. Daily
collection of eggs postpones broodiness and thus leads to higher egg production
(Guèye and Bessei, 1997).
Few of the eggs of village fowl are consumed, most are allowed to incubate
under the mother hen because farmers in Africa are aware of high mortality,
especially in growing birds. In most cases keeping at least a small flock is the
major concern. Indigenous stocks tend to bave good mothering ability. The
hatchability f
s is estimated to be more than 70% (‘&Me 4) and is correlated
with the
T
male/ emale ratio (r = -0.67, p < 0.05). According to Wilson et al.
(1987) and Kassambara (1989), hatchability is seasomally affected with the
poorest results occurring during the hot dry season. F,armers in Senegal claim
that indigenous birds with the naked neck gene (Na) show particularly good
brooding abilities.
Table 5 Reproductive parameters of the Senegalese indigenous fowl in a rural environment and
an experimental station with and without use of an additional artificial lighting programme
(LP), respectively
Experimental station
Rural
environment
With LP
Without LP
Age at sexual maturity (weeks)
2.5
20
20
Mean (SD) egg yield (%)
1 2
24 (13)”
26 (17)t
Mean (SD) egg weight (g)
40 (4)
44 (1)
40 (4)
Total egg production per annum
40-50
80-90
90-I 00
Mean (SD) feed intake (g/day/bird)
102 (14)
78 (17)
Cumulative feed conversion+
1 3
27
Fertility (%)
81
Hatchability of fertile eggs (%)
80
77
Source: Buldgen et al. (1992).
*In 30 laying weeks.
tIn 42 laying weeks.
$During 30 and 42 laying weeks, respectively.
8 2
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 54, March 1998
Genetic improvement
In addition to the major impact of environmental factors, the considerable
variation in performance parameters of village fowl in Africa is also obviously
affected by genetic components. Much variation has developed as a result of
random breeding within, and sometimes between, diverse populations (El
Houadfi, 1990; Sonaiya et al., 1992; Guèye and Bessei, 1995). Such birds cari be
improved genetically through selective breeding or by crossing with exotic stocks.
Exotic breeds characterized by high productivity and hardiness such as Rhode
Island Red, New Hampshire and Plymouth Rock are generally used (Anony-
mous, 1987). For example, Zaza (1992) reported on the higher egg and meat
production obtained in Egypt from improved crossbreeds compared with local
breeds (Tuble 3). However, this must not lead to the indigenous stocks being
neglected. They should be protected for two main reasons. Firstly, indigenous
fowl represent an important reservoir of genetic variation that should be
conserved. Secondly, these birds are well adapted to extensive husbandry systems
and are utterly suitable for poultry farmers endowed with very limited means, as
is SO often the case in African rural areas.
Conclusions
In Africa the indigenous fowl are known to have some disadvantages arising from
their slow growth and poor egg production, their late sexual maturity and the fact
that they suffer high rearing mortality. However, the production of these birds is
characterized by many advantages such as good egg and meat flavour, hard egg
shells, high dressing percentages, and especially low cost with little special tare
required for production. They are therefore well suited to the very limited input
that the mainly poor producers cari provide. However, efforts to increase
productivity through improvements in health, feeding, housing, genetics and
daily management should be encouraged as they Will result in increased
economic return.
The International Network for Family Poultry Development (INFPD) has been
set up to co-ordinate research, training and/or extension in relation to village
poultry production. Among the objectives of the INFPD is the encouragement of
higher standards through reporting results, providing advice, and disseminating
these through its biannual and bilingual (English and French) newsletter.
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