L 1 Biological and economic performances of an...
L
1
Biological and economic performances of an intensifïed management system for village
2
Ndama cattle in mixed farming systems of West African sub-humid zones.
4
Abdou FALL’,* and Adama FAYE’
5
‘Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, Centre de Recherches Zootechniques de Kolda.
6
2Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh
7
Abstract
8
This study investigated biological effects and the profïtability of a management package (INTMS) based on the
9
stabling of village Ndama cows and adult males and that included supplementary feeding, health tare and
10
housing. The productivity of 187 animals that benefïted from the package was compared with that of 13 1
11
animals reared on an extensive traditional basis (EXTMS). The package increased the productivity of animals.
12
INTMS cows maintained PCV and LW whereas EXTMS cows suffered decline in PCV and lost 17% of their
13
initial LW. Total milk offtake for human consumption was greater in lNTMS cows (7654.4 litres in 80 days)
14
than in EXTMS cows (18A6.4 litres in 37 days). LW growth rates were greater in calves of INTMS cows (153
15
g/day) than in calves from EXTMS cows (26 g/day). Growth rates were -438 and 139 glday in EXTMS and
16
INTMS adult males, respectively. An average of 4.8 kg/night/2SO kg live weight of manure (faeces + litter +
17
urine) was produced in stables. Stabling operations were fïnancially profitable as net benefïts accounted for 45-
18
51% of marginal benefits. However profitability was sensitive to prices of concentrate feed and of milk.
19
Marginal benefïts were made up of value of increased LW (43-55%) and value of milk offtake (24-27%) and
20
manure (6%).
21
Key words: Ndama cattle, intensified management, productivity, profitability
22
23
Introduction
24
The combined effect of population growth, drought and reduced soi1 productivity has caused a
25
decline in per capita food production in Senegal during the past 2 decades. The need to
26
increase agricultural production to reverse the trend of widening gap between domestic food
27
demand and supply is a great challenge facing the agricultural sector. It is recognised that
28
opportunities to increase agricultural production exist in the subhumid zones and in wetter
29
areas of semi-arid areas of sub-Saharan Africa (Mohamed Saleem et al., 1995). This is
30
because rainfall in these areas is still more reliable and suffcient for major crops (cotton,
31
millet, sorghum, groundnut) and that there is relatively enough land to support expansion of
32
cultivated areas. The potential to increase agricultural production in sub-humid zones lies also
33
on the intrinsic merits of mixed farming systems found in these areas in terms of efficiency of
34
food production. Draught animal power is used for cultivation and transport and trop residues
35
form valuable feed resources during the dry season. Animal manure allows cropping each year
36
of fields around the homesteads where cereals are grown.
37
38
Because of their high potential for agricultural production, sub-humid zones are attracting
39
more human and animal populations. As a result more land is being cleared for cropping at the
40
expense of forest resources. Furthermore, livestock production systems in sub-humid zones
41
are operated on an extensive land use basis with minimal extemal inputs. Further
42
intensification of the livestock component is needed to enhance the efficiency of the
43
association between trop and livestock in the mixed farming system, to increase agricultural
44
production and to ease pressure on land in the long run. A mode1 of intensification of
45
livestock production in mixed farming systems in sub-humid zones based on dry season
46
stabling of cattle with supplementary feeding and improved health tare, and housing, is being
47
developed in southem Senegal.
This was originally designed to address the problem of
48
reduced soi1 fertility in the area where cotton is produced through increased manure
49
production of a good quality in animal stalls. Stall-feeding of draught cattle during the dry
50
season was also expected to result in more animal power input to cropping because they
51
52
Correspondance address : Dr Abdou FALL, ISRAILNERV BP 2057 Dakar, Sénégal, Tel (221) 832 3678, Fax :
53
(22 1) 832 2 118, Email : abdoufal@isra.refer.sn
1
c
*
1
would be in better condition at the start of the cropping season to perform well. Therefore
2
draught cattle were the preferred category of cattlé to be stabled. It was later realised that
3
retums from manure and draught animals power alone could compensate hardly for the
4
investments incurred for the establishment of stables and for their operating costs. As a result,
5
stabling of lactating females was suggested SO that revenues generated through milk sales and
6
household milk consumption could make stabling more profitable. This paper reports on
7
findings of a study that investigated the biological effects and the profitability of this
8
intensified management system for village Ndama cattle in the sub-humid zones of Senegal.
9
1 0
Material and methods
1 1
The study area and cattle herd management
1 2
This study was carried in 1991 and 1992 in the Upper Casamance region of southem
1 3
Senegal. The climate in this region is of a sudano-guinean type. Rainfall was 787 and 684 mm
1 4
in 1990 and 1991, respectively. Farmers grow cash crops (cotton and groundnut) as well as
1 5
food crops (millet, sorghum and maize). Multipurpose Ndama cattle used for meat, milk,
1 6
power and manure, make up the dominant livestock biomass. Cropping and livestock
1 7
activities are undertaken by the same household and they are closely interrelated and
1 8
complementary.
1 9
20
Animals graze on natural pastures which form the main source of food supply. Rastures are
2 1
abundant and of good quality during the rainy season and early dry season. After harvest of
22
the grain, animals have also access cereal trop residues (millet, sorghum, rice) consumed
2 3
directly in the fïelds. Shortage of food supply during the critical months of March, April, may
24
and June is the single most important constraints facing herd owners in this area. Animal are
2.5
tethered ovemight on cereal trop fïelds during the dry season and are moved into the forest
26
during the cropping season to avoid damage to crops. Nutrient cycling through direct manure
2 7
deposition allow cropping each year of fields at the vicinity of the homesteads.
28
Mating is not controlled and calving occurs a11 year round. However most of the calvings take
29
place during the second half of the year and peak calving is recorded in July and August.
30
Milking is performed once a day, and it starts one week after calving. The calf is allowed to
3 1
suckle for few seconds to stimulate milk let-down and thereafter, it is tethered to the leg of the
3 2
dam during the course of milking. The residual milk is suckled by the calf. Suckling of calves
3 3
takes places a second time in the evening when adult animals retum from grazing. Calves are
3 4
tethered over night away from cows to avoid suckling. A main feature of the milking system
3 5
in the Kolda area is that milk extraction for human consumption is suspended during part of
36
the dry reason and milking is resumed during the next vvet season.
3 7
3 8
In the present study the intensified management system (INTMS) is referred to as a
39
combination of strategic feed supplementation, better health tare and housing during the dry
40
season for a limited number of animals selected from the main herd. Other animals in the herd
4 1
are managed under extensive management conditions (EXTMS) and therefore do not benefit
42
from these improved management measures.
4 3
44
Experimental design
45
Research sites, animals and treatments
46
A total of 3 18 animals distributed into 7 stables in 4 villages were used in this study for
47
regular monitor-mg of health and production parameters. Animals were divided into 2 groups.
4 8
Croup 1 was composed of animals in the intensive management system (78 adult females, 79
49
calves and 30 adult males). In addition to grazing natural pastures, INTMS animals are fed
5 0
daily a supplement, from February-March to June, l-l.5 kg of cotton seed and 3-4 kg of
2
1
groundnut hay. Calves were not given feed supplement, but they benefited from their dam’s
2
feed allowance and also fi-om the improved milk production brought about by the
3
supplementary feeding of their dam.
4
5
Health measures include vaccination (against anthrax, hemoragic septicaemia), deworming
6
using fenbendazole (PanacupD, Hoechst, A.G.) and trypanocidal treatments of animals using
7
Aceturate Diminazene (BerenilND , at a dose of 3.5 mg/ kg LW).
8
9
Animals were housed in stalls built within the homesteads. The floor of the stall is usually a
1 0
pit where the animals stay ovemight to allow the accumulation of urine and faeces. The litter
1 1
is formed by bush hay or trop residues that are regularly added into the pit. Many types of
1 2
stall are found in this area depending on size and whether or not cernent is used. Large stables
1 3
cari accommodate up to 30 adult animals whereas small size stables cari house just 2 to 4
1 4
animals. The walls of the pit may be cemented or not. Cemented stalls require more capital
1 5
investment for their establishment, they however have a longer life in comparison to non
1 6
cemented stalls which tend to deteriorate because of the erosive effect of water runoffs and
1 7
damages caused by animals.
18
1 9
Group 2, the control group, was formed by animals (66 adult females, 48 calves and 17 adult
20
males ) which was selected from the same herd to match as much as possible age categories
2 1
and physiological status of animals in group 1, but which were managed under traditional
22
extensive conditions (EXTMS). They were grazed on natural pastures without
2 3
supplementation and they were not subjected to any prophylactic and treatment measures.
24
25
26
27
Field measurements and laboratory analyses
28
Al1 animals were weighed at the beginning, midway and at the end of the experiment. Milk
29
offtake for human consumption was measured each week using graduated tubes. Additional
30
data collected during the experiment included herd entries and exit, quantity of food
3 1
supplement given to animals and inputs (food, drugs, labour) and output prices (live animals,
32
milk, rental of draught animals).
3 3
34
Blood samples were taken fi-om each animal at the star& midway and end of the operation in
3 5
evacuated tubes containing EDTA to detect the presence of trypanosomes using phase
36
contrast examination of the blood buffy coat (Murray et al., 1983) and for the determination of
37
the packed red ce11 volume per cent (PCV). Blood smears were also made to detect other
38
blood parasites such as anaplasma spp. and babesia spp. Faecal samples were collected fi-om
3 9
the rectum of the animals and they were examined for the presence of gastrointestinal
40
parasites and the estimation of worm burden using McMaster egg counting technique,
4 1
Serological tests were also applied to detect the presence of brucellosis and leptospirosis. At
42
the end of the stall-feeding operation, manure produced in 2 stalls were weighed and samples
4 3
were taken for the determination of their chemical composition.
44
4 5
Data analysis
46
Production and health parameters
47
Live weight (LW) change, milk offtake, PCV o/ and the prevalence of blood and
4 8
gastrointestinal parasites were analysed using General Linear Mode1 procedures (SAS, 1989).
49
Sources of variation for the analysis of LW and daily weight gain in different age classes
50
included village, stable within village and treatment eitlher INTMS or EXTMS. Live weight of
3
each animal was regressed on the number of days of stabling and the slopes of the regression
2
lines were subjected to analysis of variante using initial LW as a covariate. Parity and season
3
of calving were also included as sources of variation in the analysis of milk offtake.
4
5
Financial analysis
6
The partial budgeting approach was used to estimate the profïtability of the intensive
7
management system. Therefore only marginal benefits, marginal costs and net benefïts
8
brought about by the adoption of the INTMS were considered in the analysis (Harsh et al.,
9
1981). Net returns generated by the INTMS are the difference between marginal benefïts
1 0
gained and marginal costs incurred by shifting f?om traditional, extensive management
1 1
systems to the improved management system. Four types of stall were used to evaluate the
1 2
profitability of the stabling package: type 1: large, cemented stable accommodating 20 adult
1 3
females and 10 adult males, type 2: large, non-cemented stables with 20 lactating cows and
1 4
10 adult males, type 3: cemented stable of medium size with 6 cows and 4 adult males, type 4:
1 5
non-cemented medium size stable with 6 cows and 4 adult males.
1 6
1 7
Marginal benefits generated by the INTMS include increased revenues through milk ofttake,
1 8
LW gains, reduction in losses due to mortality and manure production. Marginal benefïts
1 9
associated with milk production and LW gains were estimated as the production differential
20
between INTMS and EXTMS. Market prices for milk were applied to both marketed and non-
2 1
marketed milk production. Value of LW gains were set using market prices of live animals at
22
the village level. Stall manure was valued using its chemical fertiliser equivalence. When
2 3
animal excretions are deposited directly to the fïelds, nutrient (mainly N) losses estimated at
24
38% of the nutrient content of fresh excretions (Hamon, 1972). The marginal benefit
2.5
generated by manure production in stalls was set as the reduction in these nutrient losses.
26
Marginal costs of the INTMS include increased expenses associated with the investment to
27
establish the stall, purchased food supplement and health tare supplies. When feed resources
28
used to supplement animals such as groundnut hay were produced on-farm, the opportunity
29
cost of these commodities was applied in the analysis using local market prices. A sensitivity
30
analysis was performed to investigate the effect of changes in input and output prices on the
3 1
profïtability of the INTMS.
32
3 3
34
Results and discussion
3 5
Health characteristics
36
Prevalence of trypanosome and gastrointestinal parasites is referred to as the number of
3 7
samples detected parasitaemic over the number of samples. Trypanosome prevalence was low
38
(1.4%). Although animals were treated at the star-t of the stabling period with Aceturate
3 9
Diminazene (BerenilR), there were new infections in a11 age categories. The emergence of new
40
infections raise the question of the relevance of systematic treatment of a11 INTMS animal
4 1
with Berenil. Where diagnostic facilities exist, it would be suggested to treat only animals that
42
showed signs of the diseases were detected parasiteamic. In the absence of diagnostic
4 3
facilities, it is suggested to treat only stall-fed animals planned to be used for work and that
44
treatment could be done at the end of the stabling period. Experiments conducted at Kolda
4 5
(Seck personnel communication) showed that Ndama oxen infected with new serodemes of
46
trypanosomes performed less work than non-infected animals. Prophylactic interventions
47
using trypamidium may be preferred in areas where the risk of trypanosomiasis is high.
48
49
The prevalence of anaplasma was also low (1.2%). However, the impact of this disease on
5 0
productivity appeared signifïcant. Indeed, of the 10 animais infected with Anaplasma, 2 died,
4
one disappeared and 3 of them were sold after they suffered severe LW losses of 16% of their
initial LW. The treatment of INTMS animals with anthelmintics proved effective as the
prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites was lower in these animals compared to EXTMS
animals were not drenched (Table 2).
Serological tests performed on 162 blood samples revealed that 3 animals had brucellosis and
39 of them were infected with leptospirosis. Because t:hese affections cari cause abortion and
8
therefore lower the reproductive performance of cows and also because of the implication of
9
brucellosis on public health, these diseases deserve further investigation to assess their impact
1 0
SO that appropriate health measures could be devised.
11
1 2
Feed supplementation and health measures had a positive effect on the capacity of animais to
1 3
resist anaemia. Although there was a trend of PCV to decline during the fïrst phase of the
1 4
stabling operation (Table 2), supplemented animals were able to increase PCV to starting
1 5
levels whereas PCV in EXTMS animals remained low due to the combined effect of
1 6
nutritional and infectious stresses they are subjected to during the dry season.
1 7
1 8
Productivity
1 9
It is assumed that productivity gains observed in INTMS as compared to EXTMS are due to
20
the combined effects of feed supplementation and health tare. The severe nutritional stress
2 1
animals are subjected to during the dry season cause retarded growth in growing animals and
22
pronounced LW losses in adult animals. As nutrient intakes during the dry season do not
2 3
match nutrient requirements, animals mobilise their body reserves stored as fat. Depletion of
24
body reserves leads to the use of muscular tissues to assure maintenance. This is the main
2 5
cause of poor productivity observed in traditional extensive livestock production systems
26
where animals experience food shortages during the long dry season. This nutritional defïcit
2 7
translates into reduced milk production, post-partum acyclicity and reduced growth. The main
2 8
objective of the INTMS package is to minimise the deleterious effect of this nutritional stress
29
by means of feed supplementation of selected animals. In the present study, calves that were
30
stabled benefïted from the improved milk production of their dam, they also had the
3 1
opportunity to share food supplement intended for their dam. Therefore they grew at a much
32
greater rate (153 g/day) than EXTMS calves ( 26 gday). The anthelminthic treatment may
3 3
also have contributed to the better performance of INTMS calves as gastrointestinal parasites
34
cause reduced growth in Young animals. Adult males that were not stall-fed lost 438 g per day
3 5
whereas those that were in INTMS gained 149 g of LW per day. This means that the
36
combined effect of feed supplement and deworming generated a net gain of 438 + 149 = 587 g
3 7
LW per day in adult males. INTMS cows maintained their LW while those in EXTMS lost
38
LW at a rate of 240 g per day. At the end of the stall-feeding operation EXTMS cows lost
3 9
LW equivalent to 17% of their initial LW.
40
4 1
In traditional husbandry systems in southem Senegal, milk extraction for human consumption
42
is stopped during the dry season because of food shortages and milking is resumed in the next
4 3
wet season when natural pastures star-t growing again. This deprives farmers from a main
44
source of protein in their diet during many months in the year. The present study showed that
4 5
68 INTMS cows produced on average 76tr4.4 litres ofmilk in 80 days during the dry season
46
in comparison to EXTMS cows that produced 181T6.4) litres of milk for human consumption
47
in 37 days. Despite the fact feed supplementation was stopped at the end of the dry season,
48
the benefïcial effects of supplementing cows during the dry season was carried over the next
49
wet season because INTMS cows produced 8 11-6.7 litres of milk in 90 days during the rainy
5 0
season in comparison to EXTMS cows that yielded 40+10 litres over 82 days in the rainy
5
season. Mean values of milk offtake given here are adjusted means and therefore have been
2
corrected with respect to the stage of lactation, parity, village and herd, factors that were
3
included in the analysis of variante. Because most of the cows are not milked during the dry
4
season, the effect of stabling would have been greater if INTMS animals were compared to
5
EXTMS cows that were not milked. Because continuous suckling may inhibit post-partum
6
cyclicity, the benefïcial influence of dry season supplementation in terrns of increased milk
7
extraction may be offset by reduced reproductive performance. However studies that
8
investigated the effect of intensity of milking on herd productivity in The Gambia showed
9
that the twice daily milking system were superior to the once daily or zero milking systems in
1 0
terms of overall herd productivity (Agyemang et al., 1991).
1 1
1 2
The combined effects of feed supplementation and health tare appeared to have a significant
1 3
impact on survival rate. Out of the 120 control animals, 9 died whereas only one animal died
1 4
out of the 187 INTMS animals.
1 5
1 6
Manur- production was measured in 2 stalls totalling 29 animals with a total LW of 7078 kg
1 7
which is equivalent to 28 Tropical Livestock Units (TLU, average animal weighing 250 kg
1 8
LW). Total manure produced (faeces + urines + litter) was 11,03 1 kg with 24% moisture.
1 9
When Manure production was expressed relative to the animal biomass and the number of
20
nights animals spent in the stables, each TLU produced 4.8 kg of manure per night. Excretions
2 1
during the day when animals were grazing on natural pastures were not included. The mean
22
chemical composition of the manure on a dry matter basis was: Nitrogen: 11.5 kg / ton, P,O, :
2 3
1.4 kg/ton, K,O kg/ton and Ca + Mg: 8.8 kg/ton of manure. With respect to this chemical
24
composition, 10 adult animals stabled during the dry season for 3 to 4 months would produce
2 5
about 5 tons of manure which Will allow the incorporation of 57, kg of N, 7 kg of P,O, and 45
26
kg of K,O. This shows the potential of stall-feeding to substantially contribute to the
27
maintenance and restoration of soi1 fertility in su-bhumid zones if the manure is actually used.
28
29
Financial considerations
30
Value of increased LW (53-55%) made up the dominant component of marginal benefits and
3 1
value of milk offtake constituted 24 to 27% of marginal benefits. The lowest contribution to
3 2
marginal benefits came from manure output (6%). Feed supply is the dominant cost item
3 3
(66%) in stabling operations followed by cost of building the stable (27%). Farmers had
3 4
access to credit to establish the stall and payment of the loan was set for 4 years. They also
3 5
benefited from a one-year loan to buy cotton seed as feed supplement at a subsidised price.
36
Under such circumstances, the operation appeared profitable because the net benefits
37
accounted for 45 to 51 % of the marginal benefits. ThLe type of stall, either cemented or not,
38
did not appear to influence the net benefits. However, the effect of type of stall could have
3 9
been significant if the analysis was performed over many years. Indeed, non-cemented animal
40
houses Will require repair and maintenance each year and therefore Will cause additional costs
4 1
to be incurred by the farmer in comparison to cemented houses. The net benefit gained per
42
stall-fed animal varied between 7829 FCFA to 8958 FCFA. When the average labour wage
4 3
rate of 500 FCFA per day was applied, the net benetïts gained through stabling 6 cows and 4
44
males were equivalent to 5 to 6 months salary during the dry season. As opportunities for off-
45
farm employment are limited in the area where this study was conducted, the intensive
46
management system during the dry season offers farmers an appreciable means to generate
47
additional revenues. In addition, the extra milk produced contributes substantially to improve
48
farmers diet during the critical dry months when food shortage for human is often
49
experienced.
50
6
1
When the price of the feed supplement was increased and the loans were paid in one year, nets
2
benefïts was only equivalent to 14-16% and 30-32% ofmarginal benefïts in cemented and non
3
cemented stalls, respectively. Indeed, increases in the price of cotton seed occurred in 1992
4
and also the payment of the loan to build the stable was reduced fiom 4 years to 1 year from
5
1992. This shows that although the intensive management system improves animal
6
productivity, its long term sustainability is greatly dependant upon policy and incentives that
7
determine input and output prices. For instance, the devaluation of the CFA franc in 1994
8
caused an increase of milk prices in Senegal fi-om 100 in 1992 to 175 CFA per litre at the
9
Kolda area at farm level. Even with increased prices of the feed supplement and the payment
10
of loans in one year, with the price of 175 FCA per litre of milk, there was a signifïcant
11
improvement of the profïtability of stabling operations.
12
13
In conclusion, the INTMS has a great potential to increase agricultural production, to secure
14
employment in the dry season, to contribute to food security through increased milk and
15
manure production and increased cash revenues by means of milk and live animal sales.
16
17
Acknowledgements
18
The FAO project RAF/188/100 that provided funds to carry out this study is gratefully
19
acknowledged. The authors are gratefully to Hans Wagner who supported this program. The
20
contribution of The British Overseas Development Administration (ODA) is greatly
21
appreciated as it provided funds that allowed the main author to analyse the data and to
22
publish this paper.
23
24
References
25
Agyemang, K., Dwinger, R.H., Grieve, A.S. and Little, D.A. (1991). Studies on the effects of
26
calf growth and viability and on cow reproductive performance in traditionally managed
27
N’Dama herds. Animal Production, 53: 11-18
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29
Hamon, R. (1972). L’habitat des animaux et la production d’un fumier de qualité en zone
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tropicale. Agronomie Tropicale, 27: 592-607
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32
Harsh,B., Connor, L. and Schwab,D. (1981). Managing the Farm Business. Prentice Hall, Inc,
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New Jersey. 07632
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Mohamed-Saleem, M.A. and Fitzhugh, H.A. (1995). An overview of demographic and
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environmental issues in sustainable agriculture in sub-Saharan Afica, in : Livestock and
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Sustainable Nutrient Cycling in Mixed Farming Systems of sub-Suharan Africa. Volume II:
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Technical Papers (Powell, J.M., Fernandez-Rivera, S. Williams, T.O. and Renard,C. Eds).
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Proceedings of an International Conference held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 22-26
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November 1993. International Livestock Centre for Afiica, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 568 pp.
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Murray, M., Trail, J.C.M., Turner, D.A. and Wissocq,Y. (1983). Livestock Productivity and
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Typanosomiasis. Network Training Manual. International Livestock Centre for Africa.
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Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
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SAS Institute Inc. (1989), SAS/STAT User s Guide, Version 6, Fourth Edition, Volume 2,
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Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc., 1989. 846pp
1
Table 1 Prevalence’ (%) of trypanosome and gastrointestinal parasites in animals under intensive (INTMS) and extensive (EXTMS)
management systems at the start(l>efore txypanocidal and anthel,mmtic treatments), midway and end of the 4-month experiment.
.” -.-... . . ^_._ -.-.
. ^ ..--- I -_“-..-... ”
..__.-_
--- ^
_^^“^_ -
---_ -----._.l” ___._.II __. -.. “. - .._^ .^,_
--..-
-Animal
Trypanosome (%)
Strongyle (%)
Strongyloides (%)
Ascaris (%)
Coccidia (%)
~awoL~.” .._.._. “JYTMS
“.__“”
..__ -Em?.- _....__. “._.” INTMS.-EXTMS
INTMS ~ EXTMS INTMS EXTMS
_..-l.-_.l_l
,,_-.._.I.” ..- _. .“..
INTMS
. ._ ..-- EXTMS
Adult females
start 2.5 0.0 20.0 22.9
0.0 1.6 0.0 0.0
5.6
1.6
Midway 0.0 1.8 2.7 21.8
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1.3
5.5
End 2.8 0.0 2.8 31.4
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
2.8
0.0
Adult males
Start 3.6 0.0 10.7 17.7
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
3.6
0.0
Midway 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.5
0.0 6.3 3.5 0.0
3.5
0.0
End 0.0 0.0 0.0 38.5
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
3.9
0.0
Calves
Star-t 1.3 4.3 21.9 23.4
0.8 0.0 4.9 2.1
19.5
10.6
Midway 2.4 2.4 3.8 19.1
2.4 2.4 1.2 0.0
3.8
9.5
End 0.0 0.0 3.8 26.9
0.0 3.9 0.0 00
13.9
15.4
.“l”l”...“l_““,.,“_~__.,,_-, -. “_“.“..
.-.. .---.llll-ll-l.“”“-“lll--ll^.-...l..
--.... -.- .-... -..-.-..- “._-__. ^---“~“-.“-.-.“..“-.l.”
.“.Y
._ ” --_ I
3
1: Prevalence = Number of samples detected positivekota number of sample.
8
,
c
1
Table 2. Mean (* se.) live weight, daily live weight and packed ce11 volume percent (PCV) at the star-t, midway and end
2
of the experiment and live weight change in animais rea.red under the intensive management system (INTMS) and
3
extensive manrement system (EXTMS) during 4 months in the dry season
----- --..... I- . ...”
.--“-^--
-..- _.-.. -.. ,.. _..._- II
r
“-“.^l-^-.l -“- .---^
Live Weight (kg)
Daily live
PCV ( %)
Star-t
Start
End
.__^ ._._-._ --“- “.“._ ._ -.---
Midway - End
-
weightAain (g/day)
^“,
__ ._.._.. I.
‘Midwal 1”-““.“.._ _ .,” . . 1--
Adult females
I N T M S 21o-t3.1
208*3.2
204zt3.2
-1.7 * 18.9
28.81t0.82
28.5k0.86
30.2ztO.86
EXTMS
209*3.5
9m3.6
173rt4.1
-240+2 1.4
30.6hO.89
25.5kO.89
25.9rtl .OO
Adult males
INTMS
22859.8
248h9.5 241k9.9
149*84.4
34.5I-tl.07
30.751.09
34.4*1.12
EXTMS
1991t12.7 195rt13.0 181hl4.3
-438kl11.8
32.6*1.30
28.2*1.30
29.5t1.41
Calves
I N T M S
6Ozt3.6
72ïF3.6
83*3.6
153h13.9
29.wO.82
28.8ztO.85
29.9hO.85
EXTMS
621t4.6
_--._ “^~- I . ..“... ^._
._ 65*4.8
27-6*~?!!.-...“.
64*5-2 _^___ ^“l” ^_, ,,_ 26*18-04 . _.^_.. “~““..,~M.90_
2!?:5*1:F?”
4
1
Biological and economic performances of an intensifïed management system for village
2
Ndama cattle in mixed farming systems of West African sub-humid zones.
4
Abdou FALL’,* and Adama FAYE’
5
‘Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, Centre de Recherches Zootechniques de Kolda.
6
2Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh
7
Abstract
8
This study investigated biological effects and the profïtability of a management package (INTMS) based on the
9
stabling of village Ndama cows and adult males and that included supplementary feeding, health tare and
10
housing. The productivity of 187 animals that benefïted from the package was compared with that of 13 1
11
animals reared on an extensive traditional basis (EXTMS). The package increased the productivity of animals.
12
INTMS cows maintained PCV and LW whereas EXTMS cows suffered decline in PCV and lost 17% of their
13
initial LW. Total milk offtake for human consumption was greater in lNTMS cows (7654.4 litres in 80 days)
14
than in EXTMS cows (18A6.4 litres in 37 days). LW growth rates were greater in calves of INTMS cows (153
15
g/day) than in calves from EXTMS cows (26 g/day). Growth rates were -438 and 139 glday in EXTMS and
16
INTMS adult males, respectively. An average of 4.8 kg/night/2SO kg live weight of manure (faeces + litter +
17
urine) was produced in stables. Stabling operations were fïnancially profitable as net benefïts accounted for 45-
18
51% of marginal benefits. However profitability was sensitive to prices of concentrate feed and of milk.
19
Marginal benefïts were made up of value of increased LW (43-55%) and value of milk offtake (24-27%) and
20
manure (6%).
21
Key words: Ndama cattle, intensified management, productivity, profitability
22
23
Introduction
24
The combined effect of population growth, drought and reduced soi1 productivity has caused a
25
decline in per capita food production in Senegal during the past 2 decades. The need to
26
increase agricultural production to reverse the trend of widening gap between domestic food
27
demand and supply is a great challenge facing the agricultural sector. It is recognised that
28
opportunities to increase agricultural production exist in the subhumid zones and in wetter
29
areas of semi-arid areas of sub-Saharan Africa (Mohamed Saleem et al., 1995). This is
30
because rainfall in these areas is still more reliable and suffcient for major crops (cotton,
31
millet, sorghum, groundnut) and that there is relatively enough land to support expansion of
32
cultivated areas. The potential to increase agricultural production in sub-humid zones lies also
33
on the intrinsic merits of mixed farming systems found in these areas in terms of efficiency of
34
food production. Draught animal power is used for cultivation and transport and trop residues
35
form valuable feed resources during the dry season. Animal manure allows cropping each year
36
of fields around the homesteads where cereals are grown.
37
38
Because of their high potential for agricultural production, sub-humid zones are attracting
39
more human and animal populations. As a result more land is being cleared for cropping at the
40
expense of forest resources. Furthermore, livestock production systems in sub-humid zones
41
are operated on an extensive land use basis with minimal extemal inputs. Further
42
intensification of the livestock component is needed to enhance the efficiency of the
43
association between trop and livestock in the mixed farming system, to increase agricultural
44
production and to ease pressure on land in the long run. A mode1 of intensification of
45
livestock production in mixed farming systems in sub-humid zones based on dry season
46
stabling of cattle with supplementary feeding and improved health tare, and housing, is being
47
developed in southem Senegal.
This was originally designed to address the problem of
48
reduced soi1 fertility in the area where cotton is produced through increased manure
49
production of a good quality in animal stalls. Stall-feeding of draught cattle during the dry
50
season was also expected to result in more animal power input to cropping because they
51
52
Correspondance address : Dr Abdou FALL, ISRAILNERV BP 2057 Dakar, Sénégal, Tel (221) 832 3678, Fax :
53
(22 1) 832 2 118, Email : abdoufal@isra.refer.sn
1
c
*
1
would be in better condition at the start of the cropping season to perform well. Therefore
2
draught cattle were the preferred category of cattlé to be stabled. It was later realised that
3
retums from manure and draught animals power alone could compensate hardly for the
4
investments incurred for the establishment of stables and for their operating costs. As a result,
5
stabling of lactating females was suggested SO that revenues generated through milk sales and
6
household milk consumption could make stabling more profitable. This paper reports on
7
findings of a study that investigated the biological effects and the profitability of this
8
intensified management system for village Ndama cattle in the sub-humid zones of Senegal.
9
1 0
Material and methods
1 1
The study area and cattle herd management
1 2
This study was carried in 1991 and 1992 in the Upper Casamance region of southem
1 3
Senegal. The climate in this region is of a sudano-guinean type. Rainfall was 787 and 684 mm
1 4
in 1990 and 1991, respectively. Farmers grow cash crops (cotton and groundnut) as well as
1 5
food crops (millet, sorghum and maize). Multipurpose Ndama cattle used for meat, milk,
1 6
power and manure, make up the dominant livestock biomass. Cropping and livestock
1 7
activities are undertaken by the same household and they are closely interrelated and
1 8
complementary.
1 9
20
Animals graze on natural pastures which form the main source of food supply. Rastures are
2 1
abundant and of good quality during the rainy season and early dry season. After harvest of
22
the grain, animals have also access cereal trop residues (millet, sorghum, rice) consumed
2 3
directly in the fïelds. Shortage of food supply during the critical months of March, April, may
24
and June is the single most important constraints facing herd owners in this area. Animal are
2.5
tethered ovemight on cereal trop fïelds during the dry season and are moved into the forest
26
during the cropping season to avoid damage to crops. Nutrient cycling through direct manure
2 7
deposition allow cropping each year of fields at the vicinity of the homesteads.
28
Mating is not controlled and calving occurs a11 year round. However most of the calvings take
29
place during the second half of the year and peak calving is recorded in July and August.
30
Milking is performed once a day, and it starts one week after calving. The calf is allowed to
3 1
suckle for few seconds to stimulate milk let-down and thereafter, it is tethered to the leg of the
3 2
dam during the course of milking. The residual milk is suckled by the calf. Suckling of calves
3 3
takes places a second time in the evening when adult animals retum from grazing. Calves are
3 4
tethered over night away from cows to avoid suckling. A main feature of the milking system
3 5
in the Kolda area is that milk extraction for human consumption is suspended during part of
36
the dry reason and milking is resumed during the next vvet season.
3 7
3 8
In the present study the intensified management system (INTMS) is referred to as a
39
combination of strategic feed supplementation, better health tare and housing during the dry
40
season for a limited number of animals selected from the main herd. Other animals in the herd
4 1
are managed under extensive management conditions (EXTMS) and therefore do not benefit
42
from these improved management measures.
4 3
44
Experimental design
45
Research sites, animals and treatments
46
A total of 3 18 animals distributed into 7 stables in 4 villages were used in this study for
47
regular monitor-mg of health and production parameters. Animals were divided into 2 groups.
4 8
Croup 1 was composed of animals in the intensive management system (78 adult females, 79
49
calves and 30 adult males). In addition to grazing natural pastures, INTMS animals are fed
5 0
daily a supplement, from February-March to June, l-l.5 kg of cotton seed and 3-4 kg of
2
1
groundnut hay. Calves were not given feed supplement, but they benefited from their dam’s
2
feed allowance and also fi-om the improved milk production brought about by the
3
supplementary feeding of their dam.
4
5
Health measures include vaccination (against anthrax, hemoragic septicaemia), deworming
6
using fenbendazole (PanacupD, Hoechst, A.G.) and trypanocidal treatments of animals using
7
Aceturate Diminazene (BerenilND , at a dose of 3.5 mg/ kg LW).
8
9
Animals were housed in stalls built within the homesteads. The floor of the stall is usually a
1 0
pit where the animals stay ovemight to allow the accumulation of urine and faeces. The litter
1 1
is formed by bush hay or trop residues that are regularly added into the pit. Many types of
1 2
stall are found in this area depending on size and whether or not cernent is used. Large stables
1 3
cari accommodate up to 30 adult animals whereas small size stables cari house just 2 to 4
1 4
animals. The walls of the pit may be cemented or not. Cemented stalls require more capital
1 5
investment for their establishment, they however have a longer life in comparison to non
1 6
cemented stalls which tend to deteriorate because of the erosive effect of water runoffs and
1 7
damages caused by animals.
18
1 9
Group 2, the control group, was formed by animals (66 adult females, 48 calves and 17 adult
20
males ) which was selected from the same herd to match as much as possible age categories
2 1
and physiological status of animals in group 1, but which were managed under traditional
22
extensive conditions (EXTMS). They were grazed on natural pastures without
2 3
supplementation and they were not subjected to any prophylactic and treatment measures.
24
25
26
27
Field measurements and laboratory analyses
28
Al1 animals were weighed at the beginning, midway and at the end of the experiment. Milk
29
offtake for human consumption was measured each week using graduated tubes. Additional
30
data collected during the experiment included herd entries and exit, quantity of food
3 1
supplement given to animals and inputs (food, drugs, labour) and output prices (live animals,
32
milk, rental of draught animals).
3 3
34
Blood samples were taken fi-om each animal at the star& midway and end of the operation in
3 5
evacuated tubes containing EDTA to detect the presence of trypanosomes using phase
36
contrast examination of the blood buffy coat (Murray et al., 1983) and for the determination of
37
the packed red ce11 volume per cent (PCV). Blood smears were also made to detect other
38
blood parasites such as anaplasma spp. and babesia spp. Faecal samples were collected fi-om
3 9
the rectum of the animals and they were examined for the presence of gastrointestinal
40
parasites and the estimation of worm burden using McMaster egg counting technique,
4 1
Serological tests were also applied to detect the presence of brucellosis and leptospirosis. At
42
the end of the stall-feeding operation, manure produced in 2 stalls were weighed and samples
4 3
were taken for the determination of their chemical composition.
44
4 5
Data analysis
46
Production and health parameters
47
Live weight (LW) change, milk offtake, PCV o/ and the prevalence of blood and
4 8
gastrointestinal parasites were analysed using General Linear Mode1 procedures (SAS, 1989).
49
Sources of variation for the analysis of LW and daily weight gain in different age classes
50
included village, stable within village and treatment eitlher INTMS or EXTMS. Live weight of
3
each animal was regressed on the number of days of stabling and the slopes of the regression
2
lines were subjected to analysis of variante using initial LW as a covariate. Parity and season
3
of calving were also included as sources of variation in the analysis of milk offtake.
4
5
Financial analysis
6
The partial budgeting approach was used to estimate the profïtability of the intensive
7
management system. Therefore only marginal benefits, marginal costs and net benefïts
8
brought about by the adoption of the INTMS were considered in the analysis (Harsh et al.,
9
1981). Net returns generated by the INTMS are the difference between marginal benefïts
1 0
gained and marginal costs incurred by shifting f?om traditional, extensive management
1 1
systems to the improved management system. Four types of stall were used to evaluate the
1 2
profitability of the stabling package: type 1: large, cemented stable accommodating 20 adult
1 3
females and 10 adult males, type 2: large, non-cemented stables with 20 lactating cows and
1 4
10 adult males, type 3: cemented stable of medium size with 6 cows and 4 adult males, type 4:
1 5
non-cemented medium size stable with 6 cows and 4 adult males.
1 6
1 7
Marginal benefits generated by the INTMS include increased revenues through milk ofttake,
1 8
LW gains, reduction in losses due to mortality and manure production. Marginal benefïts
1 9
associated with milk production and LW gains were estimated as the production differential
20
between INTMS and EXTMS. Market prices for milk were applied to both marketed and non-
2 1
marketed milk production. Value of LW gains were set using market prices of live animals at
22
the village level. Stall manure was valued using its chemical fertiliser equivalence. When
2 3
animal excretions are deposited directly to the fïelds, nutrient (mainly N) losses estimated at
24
38% of the nutrient content of fresh excretions (Hamon, 1972). The marginal benefit
2.5
generated by manure production in stalls was set as the reduction in these nutrient losses.
26
Marginal costs of the INTMS include increased expenses associated with the investment to
27
establish the stall, purchased food supplement and health tare supplies. When feed resources
28
used to supplement animals such as groundnut hay were produced on-farm, the opportunity
29
cost of these commodities was applied in the analysis using local market prices. A sensitivity
30
analysis was performed to investigate the effect of changes in input and output prices on the
3 1
profïtability of the INTMS.
32
3 3
34
Results and discussion
3 5
Health characteristics
36
Prevalence of trypanosome and gastrointestinal parasites is referred to as the number of
3 7
samples detected parasitaemic over the number of samples. Trypanosome prevalence was low
38
(1.4%). Although animals were treated at the star-t of the stabling period with Aceturate
3 9
Diminazene (BerenilR), there were new infections in a11 age categories. The emergence of new
40
infections raise the question of the relevance of systematic treatment of a11 INTMS animal
4 1
with Berenil. Where diagnostic facilities exist, it would be suggested to treat only animals that
42
showed signs of the diseases were detected parasiteamic. In the absence of diagnostic
4 3
facilities, it is suggested to treat only stall-fed animals planned to be used for work and that
44
treatment could be done at the end of the stabling period. Experiments conducted at Kolda
4 5
(Seck personnel communication) showed that Ndama oxen infected with new serodemes of
46
trypanosomes performed less work than non-infected animals. Prophylactic interventions
47
using trypamidium may be preferred in areas where the risk of trypanosomiasis is high.
48
49
The prevalence of anaplasma was also low (1.2%). However, the impact of this disease on
5 0
productivity appeared signifïcant. Indeed, of the 10 animais infected with Anaplasma, 2 died,
4
one disappeared and 3 of them were sold after they suffered severe LW losses of 16% of their
initial LW. The treatment of INTMS animals with anthelmintics proved effective as the
prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites was lower in these animals compared to EXTMS
animals were not drenched (Table 2).
Serological tests performed on 162 blood samples revealed that 3 animals had brucellosis and
39 of them were infected with leptospirosis. Because t:hese affections cari cause abortion and
8
therefore lower the reproductive performance of cows and also because of the implication of
9
brucellosis on public health, these diseases deserve further investigation to assess their impact
1 0
SO that appropriate health measures could be devised.
11
1 2
Feed supplementation and health measures had a positive effect on the capacity of animais to
1 3
resist anaemia. Although there was a trend of PCV to decline during the fïrst phase of the
1 4
stabling operation (Table 2), supplemented animals were able to increase PCV to starting
1 5
levels whereas PCV in EXTMS animals remained low due to the combined effect of
1 6
nutritional and infectious stresses they are subjected to during the dry season.
1 7
1 8
Productivity
1 9
It is assumed that productivity gains observed in INTMS as compared to EXTMS are due to
20
the combined effects of feed supplementation and health tare. The severe nutritional stress
2 1
animals are subjected to during the dry season cause retarded growth in growing animals and
22
pronounced LW losses in adult animals. As nutrient intakes during the dry season do not
2 3
match nutrient requirements, animals mobilise their body reserves stored as fat. Depletion of
24
body reserves leads to the use of muscular tissues to assure maintenance. This is the main
2 5
cause of poor productivity observed in traditional extensive livestock production systems
26
where animals experience food shortages during the long dry season. This nutritional defïcit
2 7
translates into reduced milk production, post-partum acyclicity and reduced growth. The main
2 8
objective of the INTMS package is to minimise the deleterious effect of this nutritional stress
29
by means of feed supplementation of selected animals. In the present study, calves that were
30
stabled benefïted from the improved milk production of their dam, they also had the
3 1
opportunity to share food supplement intended for their dam. Therefore they grew at a much
32
greater rate (153 g/day) than EXTMS calves ( 26 gday). The anthelminthic treatment may
3 3
also have contributed to the better performance of INTMS calves as gastrointestinal parasites
34
cause reduced growth in Young animals. Adult males that were not stall-fed lost 438 g per day
3 5
whereas those that were in INTMS gained 149 g of LW per day. This means that the
36
combined effect of feed supplement and deworming generated a net gain of 438 + 149 = 587 g
3 7
LW per day in adult males. INTMS cows maintained their LW while those in EXTMS lost
38
LW at a rate of 240 g per day. At the end of the stall-feeding operation EXTMS cows lost
3 9
LW equivalent to 17% of their initial LW.
40
4 1
In traditional husbandry systems in southem Senegal, milk extraction for human consumption
42
is stopped during the dry season because of food shortages and milking is resumed in the next
4 3
wet season when natural pastures star-t growing again. This deprives farmers from a main
44
source of protein in their diet during many months in the year. The present study showed that
4 5
68 INTMS cows produced on average 76tr4.4 litres ofmilk in 80 days during the dry season
46
in comparison to EXTMS cows that produced 181T6.4) litres of milk for human consumption
47
in 37 days. Despite the fact feed supplementation was stopped at the end of the dry season,
48
the benefïcial effects of supplementing cows during the dry season was carried over the next
49
wet season because INTMS cows produced 8 11-6.7 litres of milk in 90 days during the rainy
5 0
season in comparison to EXTMS cows that yielded 40+10 litres over 82 days in the rainy
5
season. Mean values of milk offtake given here are adjusted means and therefore have been
2
corrected with respect to the stage of lactation, parity, village and herd, factors that were
3
included in the analysis of variante. Because most of the cows are not milked during the dry
4
season, the effect of stabling would have been greater if INTMS animals were compared to
5
EXTMS cows that were not milked. Because continuous suckling may inhibit post-partum
6
cyclicity, the benefïcial influence of dry season supplementation in terrns of increased milk
7
extraction may be offset by reduced reproductive performance. However studies that
8
investigated the effect of intensity of milking on herd productivity in The Gambia showed
9
that the twice daily milking system were superior to the once daily or zero milking systems in
1 0
terms of overall herd productivity (Agyemang et al., 1991).
1 1
1 2
The combined effects of feed supplementation and health tare appeared to have a significant
1 3
impact on survival rate. Out of the 120 control animals, 9 died whereas only one animal died
1 4
out of the 187 INTMS animals.
1 5
1 6
Manur- production was measured in 2 stalls totalling 29 animals with a total LW of 7078 kg
1 7
which is equivalent to 28 Tropical Livestock Units (TLU, average animal weighing 250 kg
1 8
LW). Total manure produced (faeces + urines + litter) was 11,03 1 kg with 24% moisture.
1 9
When Manure production was expressed relative to the animal biomass and the number of
20
nights animals spent in the stables, each TLU produced 4.8 kg of manure per night. Excretions
2 1
during the day when animals were grazing on natural pastures were not included. The mean
22
chemical composition of the manure on a dry matter basis was: Nitrogen: 11.5 kg / ton, P,O, :
2 3
1.4 kg/ton, K,O kg/ton and Ca + Mg: 8.8 kg/ton of manure. With respect to this chemical
24
composition, 10 adult animals stabled during the dry season for 3 to 4 months would produce
2 5
about 5 tons of manure which Will allow the incorporation of 57, kg of N, 7 kg of P,O, and 45
26
kg of K,O. This shows the potential of stall-feeding to substantially contribute to the
27
maintenance and restoration of soi1 fertility in su-bhumid zones if the manure is actually used.
28
29
Financial considerations
30
Value of increased LW (53-55%) made up the dominant component of marginal benefits and
3 1
value of milk offtake constituted 24 to 27% of marginal benefits. The lowest contribution to
3 2
marginal benefits came from manure output (6%). Feed supply is the dominant cost item
3 3
(66%) in stabling operations followed by cost of building the stable (27%). Farmers had
3 4
access to credit to establish the stall and payment of the loan was set for 4 years. They also
3 5
benefited from a one-year loan to buy cotton seed as feed supplement at a subsidised price.
36
Under such circumstances, the operation appeared profitable because the net benefits
37
accounted for 45 to 51 % of the marginal benefits. ThLe type of stall, either cemented or not,
38
did not appear to influence the net benefits. However, the effect of type of stall could have
3 9
been significant if the analysis was performed over many years. Indeed, non-cemented animal
40
houses Will require repair and maintenance each year and therefore Will cause additional costs
4 1
to be incurred by the farmer in comparison to cemented houses. The net benefit gained per
42
stall-fed animal varied between 7829 FCFA to 8958 FCFA. When the average labour wage
4 3
rate of 500 FCFA per day was applied, the net benetïts gained through stabling 6 cows and 4
44
males were equivalent to 5 to 6 months salary during the dry season. As opportunities for off-
45
farm employment are limited in the area where this study was conducted, the intensive
46
management system during the dry season offers farmers an appreciable means to generate
47
additional revenues. In addition, the extra milk produced contributes substantially to improve
48
farmers diet during the critical dry months when food shortage for human is often
49
experienced.
50
6
1
When the price of the feed supplement was increased and the loans were paid in one year, nets
2
benefïts was only equivalent to 14-16% and 30-32% ofmarginal benefïts in cemented and non
3
cemented stalls, respectively. Indeed, increases in the price of cotton seed occurred in 1992
4
and also the payment of the loan to build the stable was reduced fiom 4 years to 1 year from
5
1992. This shows that although the intensive management system improves animal
6
productivity, its long term sustainability is greatly dependant upon policy and incentives that
7
determine input and output prices. For instance, the devaluation of the CFA franc in 1994
8
caused an increase of milk prices in Senegal fi-om 100 in 1992 to 175 CFA per litre at the
9
Kolda area at farm level. Even with increased prices of the feed supplement and the payment
10
of loans in one year, with the price of 175 FCA per litre of milk, there was a signifïcant
11
improvement of the profïtability of stabling operations.
12
13
In conclusion, the INTMS has a great potential to increase agricultural production, to secure
14
employment in the dry season, to contribute to food security through increased milk and
15
manure production and increased cash revenues by means of milk and live animal sales.
16
17
Acknowledgements
18
The FAO project RAF/188/100 that provided funds to carry out this study is gratefully
19
acknowledged. The authors are gratefully to Hans Wagner who supported this program. The
20
contribution of The British Overseas Development Administration (ODA) is greatly
21
appreciated as it provided funds that allowed the main author to analyse the data and to
22
publish this paper.
23
24
References
25
Agyemang, K., Dwinger, R.H., Grieve, A.S. and Little, D.A. (1991). Studies on the effects of
26
calf growth and viability and on cow reproductive performance in traditionally managed
27
N’Dama herds. Animal Production, 53: 11-18
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29
Hamon, R. (1972). L’habitat des animaux et la production d’un fumier de qualité en zone
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tropicale. Agronomie Tropicale, 27: 592-607
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32
Harsh,B., Connor, L. and Schwab,D. (1981). Managing the Farm Business. Prentice Hall, Inc,
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New Jersey. 07632
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35
Mohamed-Saleem, M.A. and Fitzhugh, H.A. (1995). An overview of demographic and
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environmental issues in sustainable agriculture in sub-Saharan Afica, in : Livestock and
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Sustainable Nutrient Cycling in Mixed Farming Systems of sub-Suharan Africa. Volume II:
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Technical Papers (Powell, J.M., Fernandez-Rivera, S. Williams, T.O. and Renard,C. Eds).
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Proceedings of an International Conference held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 22-26
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November 1993. International Livestock Centre for Afiica, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 568 pp.
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42
Murray, M., Trail, J.C.M., Turner, D.A. and Wissocq,Y. (1983). Livestock Productivity and
43
Typanosomiasis. Network Training Manual. International Livestock Centre for Africa.
44
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
45
46
SAS Institute Inc. (1989), SAS/STAT User s Guide, Version 6, Fourth Edition, Volume 2,
47
Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc., 1989. 846pp
1
Table 1 Prevalence’ (%) of trypanosome and gastrointestinal parasites in animals under intensive (INTMS) and extensive (EXTMS)
management systems at the start(l>efore txypanocidal and anthel,mmtic treatments), midway and end of the 4-month experiment.
.” -.-... . . ^_._ -.-.
. ^ ..--- I -_“-..-... ”
..__.-_
--- ^
_^^“^_ -
---_ -----._.l” ___._.II __. -.. “. - .._^ .^,_
--..-
-Animal
Trypanosome (%)
Strongyle (%)
Strongyloides (%)
Ascaris (%)
Coccidia (%)
~awoL~.” .._.._. “JYTMS
“.__“”
..__ -Em?.- _....__. “._.” INTMS.-EXTMS
INTMS ~ EXTMS INTMS EXTMS
_..-l.-_.l_l
,,_-.._.I.” ..- _. .“..
INTMS
. ._ ..-- EXTMS
Adult females
start 2.5 0.0 20.0 22.9
0.0 1.6 0.0 0.0
5.6
1.6
Midway 0.0 1.8 2.7 21.8
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1.3
5.5
End 2.8 0.0 2.8 31.4
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
2.8
0.0
Adult males
Start 3.6 0.0 10.7 17.7
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
3.6
0.0
Midway 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.5
0.0 6.3 3.5 0.0
3.5
0.0
End 0.0 0.0 0.0 38.5
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
3.9
0.0
Calves
Star-t 1.3 4.3 21.9 23.4
0.8 0.0 4.9 2.1
19.5
10.6
Midway 2.4 2.4 3.8 19.1
2.4 2.4 1.2 0.0
3.8
9.5
End 0.0 0.0 3.8 26.9
0.0 3.9 0.0 00
13.9
15.4
.“l”l”...“l_““,.,“_~__.,,_-, -. “_“.“..
.-.. .---.llll-ll-l.“”“-“lll--ll^.-...l..
--.... -.- .-... -..-.-..- “._-__. ^---“~“-.“-.-.“..“-.l.”
.“.Y
._ ” --_ I
3
1: Prevalence = Number of samples detected positivekota number of sample.
8
,
c
1
Table 2. Mean (* se.) live weight, daily live weight and packed ce11 volume percent (PCV) at the star-t, midway and end
2
of the experiment and live weight change in animais rea.red under the intensive management system (INTMS) and
3
extensive manrement system (EXTMS) during 4 months in the dry season
----- --..... I- . ...”
.--“-^--
-..- _.-.. -.. ,.. _..._- II
r
“-“.^l-^-.l -“- .---^
Live Weight (kg)
Daily live
PCV ( %)
Star-t
Start
End
.__^ ._._-._ --“- “.“._ ._ -.---
Midway - End
-
weightAain (g/day)
^“,
__ ._.._.. I.
‘Midwal 1”-““.“.._ _ .,” . . 1--
Adult females
I N T M S 21o-t3.1
208*3.2
204zt3.2
-1.7 * 18.9
28.81t0.82
28.5k0.86
30.2ztO.86
EXTMS
209*3.5
9m3.6
173rt4.1
-240+2 1.4
30.6hO.89
25.5kO.89
25.9rtl .OO
Adult males
INTMS
22859.8
248h9.5 241k9.9
149*84.4
34.5I-tl.07
30.751.09
34.4*1.12
EXTMS
1991t12.7 195rt13.0 181hl4.3
-438kl11.8
32.6*1.30
28.2*1.30
29.5t1.41
Calves
I N T M S
6Ozt3.6
72ïF3.6
83*3.6
153h13.9
29.wO.82
28.8ztO.85
29.9hO.85
EXTMS
621t4.6
_--._ “^~- I . ..“... ^._
._ 65*4.8
27-6*~?!!.-...“.
64*5-2 _^___ ^“l” ^_, ,,_ 26*18-04 . _.^_.. “~““..,~M.90_
2!?:5*1:F?”
4